Field Emission and Electric Discharge of Nanocrystalline Diamond Films

Nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) films were produced by microwave plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (MPECVD) using gas mixtures of Ar, H₂, and CH₄. The structural properties, electron emission, and electric discharge behaviors of the NCD films varied with H₂ flow rates during MPECVD. The turn-on field for electron emission at a pressure of 2.66 × 10⁻⁴ Pa increased from 4.2 V μm⁻¹ for the NCD films that were deposited using a H₂ flow rate of 10 cm³ min⁻¹ to 7 V μm⁻¹ for films deposited at a H₂ flow rate of 20 cm³ min⁻¹. The NCD film with a low turn-on field also induced low breakdown voltages in N₂. The grain size and roughness of the NCD films may influence both the electron emission and the electric discharge behaviors of the NCD cathodes.     

Fast vapor growth of cadmium telluride single crystals

Cadmium telluride single crystals were grown at growth rates of 35 mm per day by the physical vapor transport (PVT) method under high temperature gradient conditions. This is believed to be the highest PVT growth rate of CdTe reported to date. Lamellar twins are the only ones present in the CdTe crystals grown under optimal conditions in this work. At growth rates up to 15 mm per day, the crystals have a dislocation density of ∼10⁴ cm⁻². The etch pit density increases to ∼10⁵ cm⁻² with an increase of the growth rate up to 35 mm per day. Based on a uniform thermal field and high interface stability, which are established by large temperature gradients up to 40°C/cm at the growth interface, spurious nucleation and lateral twins were effectively eliminated, and the density of the lamellar twins remained low at crystal growth rates up to 35 mm per day. The major contributions of the high temperature gradients to the single crystalline growth and the apparent origin of polycrystalline grains are also discussed in this paper.     

Arsenic Diffusion Study in HgCdTe for Low <Emphasis Type="Italic">p</Emphasis>-Type Doping in Auger-Suppressed Photodiodes

Controllable p-type doping at low concentrations is desired for multilayer HgCdTe samples in a P ⁺/π/N ⁺ structure due to the promise of suppressing Auger processes, and ultimately reduced dark current for infrared detectors operating at a given temperature. In this study, a series of arsenic implantation and annealing experiments have been conducted to study diffusion at low Hg partial pressure with the goal of achieving effective control over dopant profiles at low concentration. Arsenic dopant profiles were measured by secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), where diffusion coefficients were extracted with values ranging between 3.35 × 10⁻¹⁶ cm² s⁻¹ and 6 × 10⁻¹⁴ cm² s⁻¹. Arsenic diffusion coefficients were found to vary strongly with Hg partial pressure and HgCdTe alloy composition, corresponding to variations in Hg vacancy concentration.     

Thermoelectric Properties of Zr<Subscript>3</Subscript>Mn<Subscript>4</Subscript>Si<Subscript>6</Subscript> and TiMnSi<Subscript>2</Subscript>

The Seebeck coefficient, electrical resistivity, and thermal conductivity of Zr₃Mn₄Si₆ and TiMnSi₂ were studied. The crystal lattices of these compounds contain relatively large open spaces, and, therefore, they have fairly low thermal conductivities (8.26 Wm⁻¹ K⁻¹ and 6.63 Wm⁻¹ K⁻¹, respectively) at room temperature. Their dimensionless figures of merit ZT were found to be 1.92 × 10⁻³ (at 1200 K) and 2.76 × 10⁻³ (at 900 K), respectively. The good electrical conductivities and low Seebeck coefficients might possibly be due to the fact that the distance between silicon atoms in these compounds is shorter than that in pure semiconductive silicon.     

Transport and Thermoelectric Properties of the Ca1?xSrxRu1?yMnyO3 System

The magnetic, transport, and thermoelectric properties of Ca_1−x Sr _x Ru_1−y Mn _y O₃ have been investigated. Ferromagnetism with relatively high T _C (>200 K) was introduced by Mn doping. In particular, ferromagnetism appeared in the Ca_0.5Sr_0.5Ru_1−y Mn _y O₃ system at y > 0.2. The maximum T _C (=270 K) was recorded for a specimen of Ca_0.5Sr_0.5Ru_0.4Mn_0.6O₃. The ferromagnetism seems to be due to the mixed-valence states of Mn³⁺, Mn⁴⁺, Ru⁴⁺, and Ru⁵⁺ ions. The metallic character of Ru-rich specimens was suppressed by Mn substitution, and the system was transformed into a semiconductor at relatively low Mn content near y = 0.1. Specimens with higher Mn content (y > 0.8) had large thermoelectric power (50 μV K⁻¹ to 130 μV K⁻¹ at 280 K) accompanied by relatively low resistivity (0.03 Ω cm to 1 Ω cm). The Ca_0.5Sr_0.5Ru_1−y Mn _y O₃ system seems to have good potential as a thermoelectric material for use above 300 K.     

Low oxygen and carbon incorporation in AIGaAs using tritertiarybutylaluminum in organometallic vapor phase epitaxy

High-quality AIGaAs epilayers have been grown by low pressure organometallic vapor phase epitaxy with a new aluminum precursor tritertiarybutylaluminum (TTBAl). Layers grown at 650°C have a featureless mirror surface morphology and strong room temperature photoluminescence. Carbon was not detectable in chemical analysis by secondary ion mass spectroscopy, nor in low temperature (4K) photoluminescence spectra. Oxygen concentration in Al_0.25Ga_0.75As is as low as ∼2−3 × 10¹⁷ cm⁻³. Nominally undoped AIGaAs layers exhibit n-type conductiv-ity with electron concentrations at ∼ 1−1.5 × 10¹⁶ cm⁻³. A high degree of compo-sitional uniformity over 5 cm diam substrates (0.268 ±0.001) was obtained. These results indicate the potential for TTBA1 as an aluminum precursor for low temperature growth of Al-containing III-V alloys.     

Vapor Annealing as a Post-Processing Technique to Control Carrier Concentrations of Bi<Subscript>2</Subscript>Te<Subscript>3</Subscript> Thin Films

This article demonstrates that carrier concentrations in bismuth telluride films can be controlled through annealing in controlled vapor pressures of tellurium. For the bismuth telluride source with a small excess of tellurium, all the films reached a steady state carrier concentration of 4 × 10¹⁹ carriers/cm³ with Seebeck coefficients of −170 μV K⁻¹. For temperatures below 300°C and for film thicknesses of 0.4 μm or less, the rate-limiting step in reaching a steady state for the carrier concentration appeared to be the mass transport of tellurium through the gas phase. At higher temperatures, with the resulting higher pressures of tellurium or for thicker films, it was expected that mass transport through the solid would become rate limiting. The mobility also changed with annealing, but at a rate different from that of the carrier concentration, perhaps as a consequence of the non-equilibrium concentration of defects trapped in the films studied by the low temperature synthesis approach.     

Steady-State Electron Transport and Low-Field Mobility of Wurtzite Bulk ZnO and Zn<Subscript>1−<Emphasis Type="Italic">x</Emphasis></Subscript>Mg<Subscript><Emphasis Type="Italic">x</Emphasis></Subscript>O

Steady-state electron transport and low-field electron mobility characteristics of wurtzite ZnO and Zn_1−x Mg _x O are examined using the ensemble Monte Carlo model. The Monte Carlo calculations are carried out using a three-valley model for the systems under consideration. Acoustic and optical phonon scattering, intervalley (equivalent and nonequivalent) scattering, ionized impurity scattering, and alloy disorder scattering are used in the Monte Carlo simulations. Steady-state electron transport is analyzed, and the population of valleys is also obtained as a function of applied electric field and ionized impurity concentrations. The negative differential mobility phenomena is clearly observed and seems compatible with the occupancy and effective nonparabolicity factors of the valleys in bulk ZnO and in Zn_1−x Mg _x O with low Mg content. The low-field mobilities are obtained as a function of temperature and ionized impurity concentrations from the slope of the linear part of each velocity–field curve. It is seen that mobilities begin to be significantly affected for ionized impurity concentrations above 5 × 10¹⁵/cm³. The calculated Monte Carlo simulation results for low-field electron mobilities are found to be consistent with published data.     

Dynamic Recrystallization (DRX) as the Mechanism for Sn Whisker Development. Part II: Experimental Study

In Part I of this study, a dynamic recrystallization (DRX) model was proposed to describe the development of metal whiskers. A diffusion-assisted, dislocation-based mechanism would support the DRX steps of grain initiation (refinement) and grain growth. This, Part II, describes experiments investigating the time-dependent deformation (creep) of Sn under temperature conditions (0°C, 25°C, 50°C, 75°C, and 100°C) and stresses (1 MPa, 2 MPa, 5 MPa, and 10 MPa) that are commensurate with Sn whisker development, in order to parameterize the DRX process. The samples, which had columnar grains oriented perpendicular to the stress axis similar to their morphology in Sn coatings but of larger size, were tested in the as-fabricated condition as well as after 24 h annealing treatments at 150°C or 200°C. The steady-state creep behavior fell into two categories: low (<10⁻⁷ s⁻¹) and high strain rates (>10⁻⁷ s⁻¹). The apparent activation energy (ΔH) at low strain rates was 8 ± 9 kJ/mol for the as-fabricated condition, indicating that an anomalously or ultrafast diffusion mass transport mechanism assisted deformation. Under the high strain rates, the ΔH was 65 ± 6 kJ/mol (as-fabricated). The rate kinetics were not altered significantly by the annealing treatments. The critical strain (ε _c) and Zener–Hollomon parameter (Z) confirmed that these stresses and temperatures were nearly capable of causing cyclic DRX in the Sn creep samples, but would certainly do so in Sn coatings with the smaller grain size. The effects of the annealing treatments, coupled with the DRX model, indicate the need to maximize the creep strain rate during stress relaxation so as to avoid conditions that would favor whisker growth. This study provides a quantitative methodology for predicting the likelihood of whisker growth based upon the coating stress, grain size, temperature, and the similarity assumption of creep strain.     

High field electronic properties of SiO2

The effects of very high electric fields on the transport of electrons and holes in SiO₂ are discussed. At fields above 5 × 10⁵ V/cm, electrons emit optical phonons, which is a very efficient energy loss mechanism. Holes on the other hand form small polarons in about 10^?12 s, and their mobility becomes very low, but is unaffected by field up to 5 × 10⁶ V/cm. The field dependent generation of electron-hole pairs is fit by application of the geminate recombination theory with a distribution of thermalization distances and excitation by X-rays and bandgap radiation is discussed. The first dependent bulk recombination coefficient is discussed in terms of high field mobility of the electrons. The impact ionization of electrons in SiO₂ is discussed by comparing recent results for laser-induced breakdown in SiO₂ with experiments on thin films involving photocurrents, space charge buildup and prebreakdown currents, and also theoretical predictions. Below 10⁷ V/cm the laser experiments indicate higher impact ionization rates than the thin film experiments or theory.     

Thermal Conductivity and Other Transport Properties of Mg<Subscript>2</Subscript>Sn:Ag Crystals

The temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity κ(T), electrical resistivity ρ(T), and Seebeck coefficient S(T) of Mg₂Sn:Ag crystals with 0 at.% to 1 at.% Ag content were measured at T = 2 K to 400 K. The crystals were cut from ingots that were prepared by the vertical Bridgman method. Undoped samples show a dramatic κ ∝ T ³ rise at low temperatures to a peak value κ _15K = 477 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹. This leads to exceptionally large phonon drag effects causing giant thermopower with S rising sharply to a peak value S _20K = 3000 μV K⁻¹. At higher temperatures S decreases and changes sign to intrinsic values S ≈ −60 μV K⁻¹. The addition of Ag changes the transport properties as follows: (a) κ decreases systematically, the peak shifts to 30 K and falls to 7 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹; (b) ρ changes from high to low values; (c) S(T) changes to a linear dependence with S _300K ≈ 150 μV K⁻¹ to 200 μV K⁻¹.     

Influence of bias-temperature stressing on the electrical characteristics of SiOC:H film with Cu/TaN/Ta-gated capacitor

Experiments on bias-temperature stressing, capacitance-voltage measurements, current-voltage characteristics, and time-dependent dielectric breakdown were performed to evaluate the reliability of Cu and low-k SiOC:H integration. A high leakage current of ∼8 × 10⁻¹⁰ to 2 × 10⁻⁸ A/cm² at 1 MV/cm in SiOC:H dielectrics in a Cu-gated capacitor, and a lower 2 × 10⁻¹⁰ to 5 × 10⁻¹⁰ A/cm² at 1 MV/cm in a Cu/TaN/Ta-gated capacitor, were observed at evaluated temperatures. The drift mobility of the Cu⁺ ions in the Cu/TaN/Ta-gated capacitor was lower than that in a Cu-gated capacitor. A physical model was developed to explain the observed kinetics of Cu⁺ ions that drift in Cu-gated and Cu/TaN/Ta-gated capacitors. The electric field in the Cu-gated MIS capacitor in the cathode region is believed to be increased by the accumulation of positive Cu⁺ ions, which determines the breakdown acceleration. Good Cu⁺ ions drift barrier layers are required as reliable interconnects using thin TaN and Ta layers. Additionally, Schottky emission dominates at low electric fields, E<1.25 MV/cm, and Poole-Frenkel emission dominates at high fields, E>1.5 MV/cm.     

Heavily Aluminum-Doped Epitaxial Layers for Ohmic Contact Formation to <Emphasis Type="Italic">p</Emphasis>-Type 4H-SiC Produced by Low-Temperature Homoepitaxial Growth

In this work, heavily aluminum (Al)-doped layers for ohmic contact formation to p-type SiC were produced by utilizing the high efficiency of Al incorporation during the epitaxial growth at low temperature, previously demonstrated by the authors’ group. The low-temperature halo-carbon epitaxial growth technique with in situ trimethylaluminum (TMA) doping was used. Nearly featureless epilayer morphology with an Al atomic concentration exceeding 3 × 10²⁰ cm⁻³ was obtained after growth at 1300°C with a growth rate of 1.5 μm/h. Nickel transfer length method (TLM) contacts with a thin adhesion layer of titanium (Ti) were formed. Even prior to contact annealing, the as-deposited metal contacts were almost completely ohmic, with a specific contact resistance of 2 × 10⁻² Ω cm². The specific contact resistance was reduced to 6 × 10⁻⁵ Ω cm² by employing a conventional rapid thermal anneal (RTA) at 750°C. Resistivity of the epitaxial layers better than 0.01 Ω cm was measured for an Al atomic concentration of 2.7 × 10²⁰ cm⁻³.     

Effect of Post-Deposition Processing on ZnO Thin Films and Devices

Post-deposition processing was conducted on ZnO thin films deposited by radio␣frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering. Rapid thermal annealing (RTA) and ion implantation followed by RTA gave increased conductivity and the latter increased Hall-effect mobility from 1.7 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹ to 9.5 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹ Metal–semiconductor–metal photodetectors (MSM-PDs) had a low dark current, a high ratio of photo to dark current, and a high responsivity of 2.1 A/W. Current transport mechanisms of MSM-PDs with post-annealing exhibited two primary space-charge-limited mechanisms, m > 2 and m < 1, following I ≈ V ^m . The non-annealed ZnO film gave one mechanism with m < 1 in photo I–V. Response to a femtosecond pulse gave rise and fall times in the range of 12 ns to 29 ns.     

Room-Temperature Preparation of High-Transparency Low-Resistivity ITO Films by Ion Beam Sputtering

Low-temperature preparation of transparent conducting electrodes is essential for flexible optoelectronic devices. Tin-doped In₂O₃ films with high transparency and low electrical resistance were prepared at room temperature using a radiofrequency ion beam sputtering system. Specimens with a low sheet resistivity of 10⁻⁴ Ω cm and a high visible-light transmittance of 85% to 90% were obtained. Hall measurements were used to determine mobility and carrier concentration, and the effects on resistivity are discussed.     

Magnetic Silver-Coated Ferrite Nanoparticles and Their Application in Thick Films

Magnetic silver-coated ferrite nanoparticles with 39.8% weight gain (relative to ferrite nanopowder coated by a silver layer) were synthesized by electroless deposition of silver on ferrite nanopowder. The mechanism of the electroless deposition was explored in terms of pretreatment, sensitization, activation, and the reduction of silver–ammonia complexes. Experiments showed that the optimal deposition conditions were a temperature of 50°C, pH value of 10 to 12, duration of 65 min with ethanol plus polyethylene glycol as additives, and ultrasonic vibration as a method of dispersing the nanoparticles. From transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images, it was observed that as-synthesized nanoparticles had a core–shell structure with a particle size of 35 nm to 90 nm and a shell thickness of 5 nm to 20 nm. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed that only ferrite and metallic silver were present in the product. Electrical resistance and magnetic hysteresis measurements demonstrated that the nanoparticles were both electrically conductive (volume electrical resistivity on the order of 10⁻⁴ Ω cm to 10⁻³ Ω cm when compressed to pressure of 2 × 10 ⁶ Pa) and possessed ferrimagnetic properties. After a thick-film paste, obtained with the nanoparticles as the functional phase, was directly written and sintered, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis and electrical resistance measurements of conductive lines in the acquired array pattern showed that an electrically conductive network with some defects and cavities was formed, with a volume electrical resistivity of 1 × 10⁻⁴ Ω cm to 1 × 10⁻³ Ω cm.     

Growth of InAs-AlSb quantum wells having both high mobilities and high concentrations

Low-temperature mobilities in InAs-AlSb quantum wells depend sensitively on the buffer layer structures. Reflection high energy electron diffraction and x-ray diffraction show that the highest crystalline quality and best InAs transport properties are obtained by a buffer layer sequence GaAs → AlAs → AlSb → GaSb, with a final GaSb layer thickness of at least 1 μm. Using the improved buffer scheme, mobilities exceeding 600,000 cm²/Vs at 10 K are routinely obtained. Modulation δ-doping with tellurium has yielded electron sheet concentrations up to 8 × 10¹² cm⁻² while maintaining mobilities approaching 100,000 cm²/Vs at low temperatures.     

Synthesis and Electronic Properties of the Misfit Layer Compound [(PbSe)<Subscript>1.00</Subscript>]<Subscript>1</Subscript>[MoSe<Subscript>2</Subscript>]<Subscript>1</Subscript>

An ultralow-thermal-conductivity compound with the ideal formula [(PbSe)_1.00]₁[MoSe₂]₁ has been successfully crystallized across a range of compositions. The lattice parameters varied from 1.246 nm to 1.275 nm, and the quality of the observed 00ℓ diffraction patterns varied through the composition region where the structure crystallized. Measured resistivity values ranged over an order of magnitude, from 0.03 Ω m to 0.65 Ω m, and Seebeck coefficients ranged from −181 μV K⁻¹ to 91 μV K⁻¹ in the samples after the initial annealing to form the basic structure. Annealing of samples under a controlled atmosphere of selenium resulted in low conductivities and large negative Seebeck coefficients, suggesting an n-doped semiconductor. Scanning transmission electron microscopy cross-sections confirmed the interleaving of bilayers of PbSe with Se-Mo-Se trilayers. High-angle annular dark-field images revealed an interesting volume defect, where PbSe grew through a region where a layer of MoSe₂ would be expected in the perfect structure. Further studies are required to correlate the density of these defects with the observed electrical properties.     

Optical Properties of Nanocrystalline GaN Films Prepared by Annealing Amorphous GaN in Ammonia

Nanocrystalline GaN films were prepared by thermal treatment of amorphous GaN films under flowing NH₃ at a temperature of 600°C to 950°C for 1 h to 2 h. X-ray diffraction and field-emission scanning electron microscopy confirmed the formation of high-crystal-quality hexagonal GaN films with preferential (002) orientation. The photoluminescence spectrum showed a sharp peak near the band gap emission located at 368 nm and a broad blue peak centered at 430 nm. Five first-order Raman modes near ∼143 cm⁻¹, 535 cm⁻¹, 555 cm⁻¹, 568 cm⁻¹, and 731 cm⁻¹ with two new additional Raman peaks at 257 cm⁻¹ and 423 cm⁻¹ were observed. The origin of these new Raman peaks is discussed briefly.     

High-Dose Phosphorus-Implanted 4H-SiC: Microwave and Conventional Post-Implantation Annealing at Temperatures ≥1700°C

Semi-insulating 4H-SiC ⟨0001⟩ wafers have been phosphorus ion implanted at 500°C to obtain phosphorus box depth profiles with dopant concentration from 5 × 10¹⁹ cm⁻³ to 8 × 10²⁰ cm⁻³. These samples have been annealed by microwave and conventional inductively heated systems in the temperature range 1700°C to 2050°C. Resistivity, Hall electron density, and Hall mobility of the phosphorus-implanted and annealed 4H-SiC layers have been measured in the temperature range from room temperature to 450°C. The high-resolution x-ray diffraction and rocking curve of both virgin and processed 4H-SiC samples have been analyzed to obtain the sample crystal quality up to about 3 μm depth from the wafer surface. For both increasing implanted phosphorus concentration and increasing post-implantation annealing temperature the implanted material resistivity decreases to an asymptotic value of about 1.5 × 10⁻³ Ω cm. Increasing the implanted phosphorus concentration and post-implantation annealing temperature beyond 4 × 10²⁰ cm⁻³ and 2000°C, respectively, does not bring any apparent benefit with respect to the minimum obtainable resistivity. Sheet resistance and sheet electron density increase with increasing measurement temperature. Electron density saturates at 1.5 × 10²⁰ cm⁻³ for implanted phosphorus plateau values ≥4 × 10²⁰ cm⁻³, irrespective of the post-implantation annealing method. Implantation produces an increase of the lattice parameter in the bulk 4H-SiC underneath the phosphorus-implanted layer. Microwave and conventional annealing produce a further increase of the lattice parameter in such a depth region and an equivalent recovered lattice in the phosphorus-implanted layers.