Nonexpert ratings of family and parent–child interaction.

Observational methods benefit the study of family process, but many expert rating systems are costly and time-consuming. This study examined the utility of using small groups of eight to ten nonexperts to rate family conflict and maternal sensitivity. Videotaped triadic interactions of 39 families were drawn from Lindahl (1998), and 22 mother–toddler free-play interactions were drawn from Baker, Messinger, Lyons, and Grantz (2010). Sixty undergraduates rated interactions from these samples in real time using computer-assisted technology. Nonexpert ratings of family conflict were reliable, demonstrated high concordance with expert ratings, and replicated a key finding from Lindahl (1998). Nonexpert ratings of maternal sensitivity replicated a relevant finding from Baker, Messinger et al. (2010). Concordance was lower for maternal sensitivity, however, because of the tendency of nonexperts to overattend to sensitive structuring compared with emotional supportiveness. A second study indicated that as few as six nonexperts could effectively rate maternal sensitive structuring, but that nonexperts were unable to accurately rate emotional supportiveness. Implications for research methods and for our understanding of these important family constructs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Power and conflict resolution in sibling, parent–child, and spousal negotiations.

This study used a within-family observational design to examine conflict strategies (planning, opposition) and resolutions (standoff, win-loss, compromise) across family subsystems, with an emphasis on power differences between parents and children during relatively symmetrical within-generation (spousal, sibling) and relatively asymmetrical between-generation (parent–child) dyadic interactions. Up to six dyads in 67 families (children's ages ranging from 3 to 12 years) discussed an unresolved conflict. Results revealed that within-generation discussions ended more in standoff, whereas between-generation discussions ended with more win-loss resolutions. Multilevel analyses indicated that parents engaged in more planning and opposition than children; however, they opposed more and planned less with their spouses than their children. In general, more planning and less opposition were associated with achieving resolutions rather than failing to resolve differences. Some effects were qualified by within-family differences between mothers versus fathers and older versus younger siblings, as well as between-family differences in younger siblings' age. Implications for theories of power and family relationship dynamics are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychotherapy in two-plus-one sessions: Outcomes of a randomized controlled trial of cognitive–behavioral and psychodynamic–interpersonal therapy for subsyndromal depression.

A total of 116 clients with a range of subsyndromal depression received 3 therapy sessions: 2 sessions 1 week apart followed by a 3rd session 3 months later (the 2?+?1 model). Clients were stratified for severity on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) as stressed, subclinical, or low-level clinically depressed. In a 2?×?2 design, they received either cognitive–behavioral (CB) or psychodynamic–interpersonal (PI) therapy, either immediately or after a 4-week delay. An initial advantage for the immediate condition disappeared once the delayed-condition clients received treatment. Improvement rates at the end of treatment were 67% (stressed), 72% (subclinical), and 65% (low-level clinically depressed). There were no significant differences between CB and PI treatment methods, with the exception at 1-year follow-up, when the BDI showed a significant advantage for CB. Implications for designing very brief planned interventions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

“My child and I are a package deal”: Balancing adult and child concerns in repartnering after divorce.

Parents who repartner after divorce must decide how to balance the potentially competing demands of their own desire for adult companionship and romance with the needs of their children for parental attention and affection. In this study, the authors assessed individual differences in divorced custodial mothers' orientation toward repartnering, characterizing it as a continuum, ranging from more child focused to more adult focused. Mothers who are more adult focused tend to be older, more educated, more likely to be employed outside the home, and exiting marriages of longer duration. In addition, using longitudinal data from in-home interviews, mothers who are more adult focused reported having lower rapport with their children, spending less time in joint activities with their children, and their children in turn reported lower rapport with their mothers. Levels of adult-focused orientation are relatively stable over time but increase when mothers become involved or interested in new partners. Using longitudinal diary data over a 2-year period, the authors demonstrated that mothers who are more child focused engage in more active management of emergent relationships in repartnered families and that adult-focused and child-focused mothers respond to different concerns. Whereas all mothers become more active in managing emergent relationships when both partner and child are resisting one another, mothers with greater child focus respond more to concerns of the child, and mothers with greater adult focus respond more to the concerns of the partner. Implications for intervention with divorced families are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sequential interactions in the parent–child communications of depressed fathers and depressed mothers.

Parental depression predicts adjustment problems and depression in offspring, yet little is known about the factors that explain this intergenerational transmission. In the present study, the authors examined one model suggesting that families with a depressed member may respond differently to positive and negative communications than families without a depressed member differences that have been theorized to adversely impact offspring development. The authors compared the sequential patterns of parent–child interaction among families with depressed mothers, depressed fathers, and nondepressed parents. Positivity suppression, defined as decreased rates of positivity following a positive communication from other family members, characterized the interactions of families with a depressed father, but not those with a depressed mother or no depressed parent. Father–child positivity suppression and low base rates of positivity were associated with child behavior problems, but not after accounting for paternal depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive–behavioral therapy to promote smoking cessation among African American smokers: A randomized clinical trial.

Objective: The health consequences of tobacco smoking disproportionately affect African Americans, but research on whether efficacious interventions can be generalized to this population is limited. This study examined the efficacy of group-based cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) for smoking cessation among African Americans. Method: Participants (N = 154; 65% female, M = 44 years old, mean cigarettes/day = 13) were randomly assigned to either (a) group CBT or (b) group general health education (GHE). Participants in both conditions received 6 sessions of counseling and 8 weeks of transdermal nicotine patches. The primary outcome variable was 7-day point prevalence abstinence (ppa), assessed at the end of counseling (2 weeks) and at 3- and 6-month follow-ups. Secondary outcomes included 24-hr ppa and 28-day continuous abstinence (assessed at 3 and 6 months). Results: Intent-to-treat analyses demonstrated the hypothesized effects, such that 7-day ppa was significantly greater in the CBT than the GHE condition at the end of counseling (51% vs. 27%), at 3 months (34% vs. 20%), and at 6 months (31% vs. 14%). Results of a generalized linear mixed model demonstrated a significant effect of CBT versus GHE on 7-day ppa (odds ratio = 2.57, 95% CI [1.40, 4.71] and also an effect of time (p     

A longitudinal examination of the parent–child distress relationship in children with juvenile rheumatic disease.

Objective: To examine the longitudinal relationships between parent and child distress in a sample of children with juvenile rheumatic diseases (JRDs). Design: Cross-lagged panel correlation analysis tested the temporal precedence of parent distress versus child distress over a 1-year period. Participants: Thirty-seven children (ages 9–17 years; 22 girls) diagnosed with JRD and their parents completed self-report measures on 2 occasions (assessment interval M = 12 months). Primary Outcome Measures: Child Depression Inventory and Brief Symptom Inventory. Results: Significant cross-sectional parent–child distress associations were observed at both time points. Moreover, Time 1 parent distress predicted child distress at Time 2 after child-reported functional ability was controlled; Time 1 child distress was unrelated to Time 2 parent distress. Cross-lagged panel correlations demonstrated the temporal precedence of parent distress relative to child distress in the parent–child distress relationship. Conclusions: These preliminary findings underscore the importance of parent distress in parent–child transactional adjustment, and suggest a predominant role for parent distress in children's adjustment to JRDs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Child care and mother–child interaction in the first three years of life.

Relations between nonmaternal child care and ratings of maternal sensitivity and child positive engagement during mother–child interaction at 6, 15, 24, and 36 months were examined for 1,274 mothers and their children participating in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development(NICHD) Study of Early Child Care. In longitudinal analyses that controlled for selection, child, and family predictors, child care was a small but significant predictor of maternal sensitivity and child engagement. For the whole sample, including families who did and did not use child care, more hours of child care predicted less maternal sensitivity and less positive child engagement. For children who were observed in child care, higher quality child care predicted greater maternal sensitivity, and more child-care hours predicted less child engagement. The effects of child care on mother–child interaction were much smaller in the analytical models than the effects of maternal education but were similar in size to the effects of maternal depression and child difficult temperament. Patterns of association with child care did not differ significantly across ages of assessment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Connectedness and autonomy support in parent–child relationships: Links to children's socioemotional orientation and peer relationships.

Connectedness and autonomy support in the parent-child relationship are constructs that emerge from object relations and attachment theories but that overlap with other commonly studied qualities of parent–child relationships to provide a unifying focus for research in this domain. In this study, these constructs were examined in relation to children's relational competence, including socioemotional orientation, friendship, and peer acceptance. Semistructured conversations between mothers and their 5-year-olds (N? =?192) were videotaped at home and rated for (a) connectedness between the members of the dyad and (b) the parent's support for the child's autonomy. Results showed that connectedness was correlated with children's socioemotional orientations, number of mutual friendships, and peer acceptance and that the relation between parent–child connectedness and children's peer relationships was mediated by children's prosocial-empathic orientation. Implications of these findings for theories that link parent–child relationships to the development of relational competence in children are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive–behavioral therapy, behavioral weight loss, and sequential treatment for obese patients with binge-eating disorder: A randomized controlled trial.

Objective: Cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) is the best established treatment for binge-eating disorder (BED) but does not produce weight loss. The efficacy of behavioral weight loss (BWL) in obese patients with BED is uncertain. This study compared CBT, BWL, and a sequential approach in which CBT is delivered first, followed by BWL (CBT + BWL). Method: 125 obese patients with BED were randomly assigned to 1 of the 3 manualized treatments delivered in groups. Independent assessments were performed posttreatment and at 6- and 12-month follow-ups. Results: At 12-month follow-up, intent-to-treat binge-eating remission rates were 51% (CBT), 36% (BWL), and 40% (CBT + BWL), and mean percent BMI losses were ?0.9, ?2.1, and 1.5, respectively. Mixed-models analyses revealed that CBT produced significantly greater reductions in binge eating than BWL through 12-month follow-up and that BWL produced significantly greater percent BMI loss during treatment. The overall significant percent BMI loss in CBT + BWL was attributable to the significant effects during the BWL component. Binge-eating remission at major assessment points was associated significantly with greater percent BMI loss cross-sectionally and prospectively (i.e., at subsequent follow-ups). Conclusions: CBT was superior to BWL for producing reductions in binge eating through 12-month follow-up, while BWL produced statistically greater, albeit modest, weight losses during treatment. Results do not support the utility of the sequential approach of providing BWL following CBT. Remission from binge eating was associated with significantly greater percent BMI loss. Findings support BWL as an alternative treatment option to CBT for BED. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal investigation of the relationship between disordered eating attitudes and behaviors and parent–child conflict: A monozygotic twin differences design.

Few studies have examined nonshared environmental risk factors for disordered eating, and none have done so using a longitudinal design. The current project used a longitudinal, monozygotic twin differences design to examine parent–child conflict as a nonshared environmental risk factor for disordered eating. Participants included 468 monozygotic female twins (234 pairs) from the Minnesota Twin Family Study, who completed surveys every 3 years from ages 11 to 17 years. Twin differences in disordered eating were assessed with the Total Score, Body Dissatisfaction, Weight Preoccupation, and Binge Eating subscales of the Minnesota Eating Behavior Survey. Differences in parent–child conflict were assessed with the Parental Environment Questionnaire. Cross-lagged models were used to examine longitudinal associations among these variables, controlling for within-age associations. Only the longitudinal association between twin differences in disordered eating at age 14 years and differences in parent–child conflict at age 17 years were significant; twin differences in disordered eating predicted later differences in parent–child conflict rather than the reverse. Findings suggest differences in parent–child conflict between genetically identical twins may be a consequence of, rather than a risk factor for, differences in disordered eating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conflict resolution in the parent–child, marital, and peer contexts and children’s aggression in the peer group: A process-oriented cultural perspective.

Theories of socialization propose that children’s ability to handle conflicts is learned at home through mechanisms of participation and observation—participating in parent–child conflict and observing the conflicts between parents. We assessed modes of conflict resolution in the parent–child, marriage, and peer-group contexts among 141 Israeli and Palestinian families and their 1st-born toddler. We observed the ecology of parent–child conflict during home visits, the couple’s discussion of marital conflicts, and children’s conflicts with peers as well as aggressive behavior at child care. Israeli families used more open-ended tactics, including negotiation and disregard, and conflict was often resolved by compromise, whereas Palestinian families tended to consent or object. During marital discussions, Israeli couples showed more emotional empathy, whereas Palestinians displayed more instrumental solutions. Modes of conflict resolution across contexts were interrelated in culture-specific ways. Child aggression was predicted by higher marital hostility, more coparental undermining behavior, and ineffective discipline in both cultures. Greater family compromise and marital empathy predicted lower aggression among Israeli toddlers, whereas more resolution by consent predicted lower aggression among Palestinians. Considering the cultural basis of conflict resolution within close relationships may expand understanding on the roots of aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The association between parent–child conflict and adolescent conduct problems over time: Results from a longitudinal adoption study.

A handful of prior adoption studies have confirmed that the cross-sectional relationship between child conduct problems and parent–child conflict at least partially originates in the shared environment. However, as the direction of causation between parenting and delinquency remains unclear, this relationship could be better explained by the adolescent's propensity to elicit conflictive parenting, a phenomenon referred to as an evocative gene–environment correlation. In the current study, the authors thus examined the prospective relationship between conduct problems and parent–child conflict in a sample of adoptive families. Participants included 672 adolescents in 405 adoptive families assessed at 2 time points roughly 4 years apart. Results indicated that parent–child conflict predicts the development of conduct problems, whereas conduct problems do not predict increases in parent–child conflict. Such findings suggest that evocative gene–environment correlations are highly unlikely to be an explanation of prior shared environmental effects during adolescence. Moreover, because the adolescents in this study do not share genes with their adoptive parents, the association between conduct problems and parent–child conflict is indicative of shared environmental mediation in particular. Implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vitality and interest–enjoyment as a function of class-to-class variation in need-supportive teaching and pupils' autonomous motivation.

In 2 quasi-experimental field studies in a real-life physical education (PE) setting, the authors investigated whether the interest–enjoyment and vitality of Greek pupils (age range, 10–12 years) varied from class to class as a function of the class-to-class variation in the manipulated motivational environment (Studies 1 and 2) and pupils' relative autonomous motivation (Study 2). In Study 1, multilevel analyses showed at the within-student level that students (N = 138, 48.6% boys and 51.4% girls) reported, on average, more interest–enjoyment and vitality after a need-supportive, relative to a typical (i.e., control group), PE class. This main effect was replicated in Study 2 (N = 155, 53.6% boys and 46.4% girls), and Study 2 findings further showed at the between-student level that interest–enjoyment was somewhat higher among pupils scoring higher in relative autonomous motivation. Moreover, Study 2 provided evidence for an interaction effect such that pupils with high, as compared with those with low, relative autonomous motivation benefited significantly more from a need-supportive class. Perceived need support was found to fully explain the effects of manipulated need support on interest-enjoyment and vitality. Results are discussed within the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of familism in the relation between parent–child discord and psychological distress among emerging adults of Mexican descent.

Although parent–child discord is a predictor of distress among emerging adults, little is known about this important link among Mexican-descent populations. This is an important gap, given Mexican Americans’ high risk for psychological distress and their expected high value placed on close family ties. This topic was studied in a sample of 392 college students from El Paso, TX (n = 193) and from Ciudad Juárez, México (n = 199). The authors tested a stress-appraisal model with self-report measures of familism, parent–child discord, threat appraisals of parent–child discord, and psychological distress. As predicted, threat appraisals partially mediated the relation between parent–child discord and psychological distress. Moreover, the relation between parent–child discord and threat appraisals was stronger at higher than at lower levels of familism. Study findings highlight the need to consider that, under certain conditions, familism may increase risk of distress among emerging adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The bilateral field advantage in a sequential face–name matching task with famous and nonfamous faces.

The authors examined the bilateral field advantage (BFA) using a sequential name–face (Experiment 1) or face-name (Experiment 2) matching task with both famous and nonfamous stimuli. In both experiments, the first stimulus (name in Experiment 1, face in experiment 2) was followed by a delay of 1,500 ms. The second stimulus (face in Experiment 1, name in Experiment 2) was then presented during a speeded response interval. Experiment 1 indicated a BFA for famous faces, but not for recently familiarized nonfamous faces. Experiment 2 indicated a BFA for names regardless of familiarity level. These results are compatible with prior findings of a BFA for meaningful stimuli as opposed to nonmeaningful ones, but only if previously unknown personal names are considered meaningful while previously unknown faces are not. These findings suggest that personal names are processed by bilateral neural networks whether they are previously known or not, whereas this is not the case for faces. Our findings have additional implications for working memory-based theories of why the BFA arises, and for the time course of meaningful association formation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotion regulation as a mediator of associations between mother–child attachment and peer relationships in middle childhood.

Although a link between attachment and peer relationships has been established, the mechanisms that account for this link have not been identified. The 1st goal of this study was to test emotion regulation as a mediator of this link in middle childhood. The 2nd goal was to examine how different aspects of emotion regulation relate to peer competence. Fifth graders completed self-report and semiprojective measures to index mother–child attachment, mothers reported on children's emotionality and coping strategies, and teachers reported on children's peer competence. Constructive coping was related to both attachment and peer competence, and mediated the association between attachment and peer competence, suggesting that emotion regulation is one of the mechanisms accounting for attachment-peer links. Constructive coping was more strongly associated with peer competence for children high on negative emotionality than for children low on negative emotionality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enhancing building, conversation, and learning through caregiver–child interactions in a children’s museum.

The authors adapted an experimental design to examine effects of instruction prior to entry into a children’s museum exhibit on caregiver–child interactions and children’s learning. One hundred twenty-one children (mean age = 6.6 years) and their caregivers were randomly assigned to 1 of 5 conditions that varied according to what, if any, preexhibit instruction the dyads received: (a) building and conversation instruction, (b) building instruction only, (c) conversation instruction only, (d) presentation of models of buildings and conversations without instruction, or (e) no instruction or control. Building instruction included information about triangular cross-bracing. Conversation instruction emphasized the use of elaborative wh-questions and associations. When observed in the exhibit, dyads in the groups that received building instruction included more triangles in their structures than those in the other groups. Caregivers provided with conversation instruction asked more wh-questions, made more associations, and engaged in more caregiver–child joint talk compared with those who received building instruction alone. Type of instruction was further linked to differences across conditions in the engineering content of talk, performance during immediate assessments of learning, and children’s memory following 1-day and 2-week delays. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Political violence and child adjustment in Northern Ireland: Testing pathways in a social–ecological model including single-and two-parent families.

Moving beyond simply documenting that political violence negatively impacts children, we tested a social–ecological hypothesis for relations between political violence and child outcomes. Participants were 700 mother–child (M = 12.1 years, SD = 1.8) dyads from 18 working-class, socially deprived areas in Belfast, Northern Ireland, including single- and two-parent families. Sectarian community violence was associated with elevated family conflict and children's reduced security about multiple aspects of their social environment (i.e., family, parent–child relations, and community), with links to child adjustment problems and reductions in prosocial behavior. By comparison, and consistent with expectations, links with negative family processes, child regulatory problems, and child outcomes were less consistent for nonsectarian community violence. Support was found for a social–ecological model for relations between political violence and child outcomes among both single- and two-parent families, with evidence that emotional security and adjustment problems were more negatively affected in single-parent families. The implications for understanding social ecologies of political violence and children's functioning are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)