Forecasting forest chip energy production in Finland 2008-2014

Energy policy measures aim to increase energy production from forest chips in Finland to 10 TWh by year 2010. However, on the regional level production differences are large, and the regional estimates of the potential base of raw materials for the production of forest chips are heterogeneous. In order to analyse the validity of the above target, two methods are proposed to derive forecasts for region-level energy production from forest chips in Finland in the years 2008-2014. The plant-level data from 2003-2007 gives a starting point for a detailed statistical analysis of present and future region-level forest chip production. Observed 2008 regional levels are above the estimated prediction 95% confidence intervals based on aggregation of plant-level time averages. A simple time trend model with fixed-region effects provides accurate forecasts for the years 2008-2014. Forest chip production forecast confidence intervals cover almost all regions for the 2008 levels and the estimates of potential production levels for 2014. The forecast confidence intervals are also derived with re-sampling methods, i.e. with bootstrap methods, to obtain more reliable results. Results confirm that a general materials shortfall is not expected in the near future for forest chip energy production in Finland.     

Drivers behind the development of forest energy in Sweden

The use of forest fuels has more than doubled in Sweden over the last 25–30 years. Almost a fifth of the utilized energy is now based on forest biomass. Concurrently, real prices of bioenergy have decreased to less than a third of what they were 25 years ago. Some principal driving forces behind this development are identified and discussed in this paper.The origin of this development was equally the result of a foreseen shortage of fibre and a reaction to this vulnerable position, made obvious through the ‘oil crises’. Although Sweden has a long tradition of large-scale use of forest energy, 35 years ago she was almost totally dependent on imported oil. Forest mechanisation provided rational solutions to handling small diameter wood and stumps in conventional industrial processes, but also enabled the economical use of such wood for energy.During 3 decades of development, drivers and obstacles have shifted. What started to reduce dependence on fossil fuels was later driven by increased general environmental awareness. An emerging ‘green’ lobby blocked the development of nuclear power and expanded harnessing of hydropower which were alternative means of self-sufficiency.In the last 10–15 years, focus has changed again. Global concern for climatic change due to emissions of greenhouse gases is a powerful driver, endorsing increased use of CO₂-neutral energy sources. Sustainability, resource cycling and the welfare of future generations are seen as goals for continued development.Ideals and policies do not, however, automatically induce change in regular operations. A set of drivers is identified, that has played the decisive role in practice. These include the direct technical–operational drivers, as well as indirect drivers through market development, taxation and other legislation.     

Policies and legislation driving Taiwan's development of renewable energy

Under the current wave of international responses to the growing threat of climate change, Taiwan cannot afford to step back from its goal of advancing its renewable energy, strengthening its energy self sufficiency and energy security. This paper will first analyze the high level dependency structure of Taiwan's energy demands; then we will explore Taiwan current situation in terms of renewable energy development; furthermore from an overview of the course of changes and development in Taiwan's energy policy, highlight the commitment to and aims of Taiwan's Renewable Energy Development, made by the government at the Annual National Energy Conference. Fourth, we shall analyse technological R&D, incentives, taxes, market reforms and other related policy tools. Fifth, in light of public announcements and budgets set in recent years for Taiwan's renewable energy research plan, highlight main strategies being given impetus by the government. Sixth, the author will discuss the implications of recent significant legal reforms to the development of renewable energy in Taiwan and from the correlating aspects of industrial structures and energy consumption, take the first steps in emphasizing the urgent need for adjustments to be made to Taiwan's industrial structure. Finally, this paper will conclude by examining current policies, legislation and strategies which are in place to promote this area in Taiwan and discuss the potential competitiveness and future scenarios which the development of Renewable Energy could mean for Taiwan.     

Energy diversification in Finland: achievements and potential of renewable energy development

Finland was an early adopter of several alternative energy technologies, particularly in biomass and hydropower energy for many years. The main policy in the Finnish energy and climate sectors is to increase the exploitation of renewable energy sources while reducing CO₂ emissions. Meanwhile, a successful energy policy should achieve three conflicting objectives: clean, cheap, and secure energy. The development of renewables in Finland has lagged that of other EU countries, particularly in fields such as wind power in recent years. This article discusses about the history, current status, and potentials of the major renewable and local energy in order of utilisation in Finland. It is seen that the major contributors to replacing carbon-based fuels are likely to be biomass and wind power, with geothermal and solar energy sources to play a lesser role.     

芬兰低能耗建筑物

1993～1998年间,芬兰国家技术研究中心VTT建筑技术研究所在若干企业的协助下进行了一项名为RAKET的低能耗建筑物研发项目。他们按计划修建了系列独户住宅、3套公寓建筑、一座太阳房和一栋办公楼。据VTT建筑技术研究所计划主任MarkkuVirtanen教授说,上述建筑基于如下特点具有低能耗与优良的居住舒适性:1.墙壁、地板与房顶等外围护结构具有优异的隔热性,2.现代高能效窗,3.具备热回收功能的机械通风系统,4.精心建造以保证建筑的气密效果。通风与气密的重要性。Virtanen指出,外围护与低U值窗的有效隔热再加上具备热回收能力的通风设备对建…     

Potential contribution of the forest sector to carbon sequestration in Finland

Although Finland's forest resources have been utilized intensively, the size of the total volume of the growing stock has increased since the mid-1960s, and hence increasing amounts of carbon have been sequestered by forests. The net sequestration by forests has also been substantial when compared with the CO₂ emissions resulting from energy generation and consumption based on fossil fuels and peat. It is also important, from the point of view of mitigating the effects of climate change, to assess how the sequestration capacity of forests may change under changing climatic conditions. This paper presents the results of a study assessing the development of the forest and wood-product carbon budget for Finland, based on regionally measured data, detailed dynamic models, and recent predictions concerning the changing climate. At the starting point for the simulation (1990), nearly 90% of the forest sector's carbon storage was found in the forest. Regular management transferred carbon from forests to wood products. Under the current climatic conditions, the simulated forest carbon storage increased 45% by the year 2100, and the wood-product storage by 320%, as a consequence of continuous production. Under changing climate conditions, the forest carbon storage increased, but started to decline when the temperature increase exceeded 2.5°C within 40 years.     

Cost analysis of transporting forest chips and forest industry by-products with large truck-trailers in Finland

Laws mandating the physical dimensions of freight transport vehicles were changed in Finland and the new legislation enables higher gross weights as well as larger load capacities. The aim of this study was to examine truck transportation costs associated with forest chips and forest industry by-products as a function of transportation distance and procurement volume in order to determine the most cost-effective vehicle type for each assortment and find out how much the new vehicle types can improve the efficiency of wood biomass transportation. The transported assortments were whole-tree and logging residue chips produced at roadside landings, sawdust, and bark or sawmill wood chips from forest industries and ground stumps from terminals. The transportation costs were calculated as a function of permissible payload and transportation distance from the loading point to the end-use facility on the basis of existing driving speed models, productivity parameters, GIS data and hourly cost data. The results of this paper indicate that the new measures, technology and weight limits for heavy vehicles represent a significant cost reduction and efficiency improvement potential when transporting forest chips and forest industry by-products. The 69-tonne truck-trailer was a feasible choice when the payload was not limited by the bulk weight of the forest industry by-products. With heavier forest industry by-products, such as sawmill wood chips and bark, the 76-tonne truck-trailer was the most feasible choice. The results showed clearly that the transporting costs associated with using the new type truck-trailers were lower than those for conventional 60-tonne truck-trailers in all assortments.     

以政策推动合同能源管理大发展

最近,中国经济发展再次面临"电荒"的掣肘,究其原因:一方面,是经济总量攀升所致;另一方面能源浪费的因素也不容忽视。中国节能减排面临巨大压力与挑战,任重而道远,必须拿出行之有效的解决方案。合同能源管理作为一种先进的节能机制,并非新生事物,在国外受到广泛青睐,成     

Role of forest sector and bioenergy in limiting the carbon emissions of Finland

The greenhouse impacts of the Finnish forest sector, including the forest biomass, forest industry, forest products in use, foreign trade and waste management are discussed. The main carbon storages and flows are estimated and the greenhouse gas balance both totally and on national level are presented. The history of the greenhouse impact is also estimated and two future scenarios of the forest sector are compared. The present use and potential for additional use of bioenergy is also reviewed, and the impact of expanded bioenergy use on the national CO₂ emissions is illustrated with scenario examples.     

Industrial supply chains and production machinery of forest chips in Finland

Metsäteho Oy surveyed the industrial supply chains used in the production of forest chips in 2006 in Finland. The Metsäteho study also conducted a survey of the production machinery of forest chips used by energy plants in 2007, and provided an estimate of industrial supply chains and future machinery requirements for forest chip production in Finland.The majority of the logging residue chips and chips from small-sized thinning wood were produced using the roadside chipping supply chain in 2006. The chipping at plant supply chain was also significant in the production of logging residue chips. The majority of all stump wood chips consumed were comminuted at the plant, and with only around one fifth comminuted at terminals. The role of the terminal chipping supply chain was also significant in the production of chips from logging residues and small-sized wood chips. It was predicted that the roles of both terminal chipping of logging residues and chipping at the plant will increase by the year 2010. Regarding the production of chips from small-diameter wood, it was estimated that the role of chipping at the plant will also increase in coming years. The proportion of roadside chipping in the production of small-sized wood chips and logging residue chips is expected to decrease.The study estimated that a total of 1100 machine and truck units were employed in the production of forest chips for energy plants in 2007. Increasing forest chip consumption will create considerable demand for additional forest chip production resources in the future.     

Wind energy development in the Caribbean

The Caribbean has the potential for a significant increase in windpowered electricity production. A number of wind farm projects are being implemented, making wind potentially the fastest growing renewable energy technology in the region over the next two decades. Wind promises to provide more than 10 per cent of the electricity in many Caribbean countries by the year 2020.     

Supply chain cost analysis of long-distance transportation of energy wood in Finland

The increasing use of bioenergy has resulted in a growing demand for long-distance transportation of energy wood. For both biofuels and traditional forest products, the importance of energy efficiency and rail use is growing. A GIS-based model for energy wood supply chains was created and used to simulate the costs for several supply chains in a study area in eastern Finland. Cost curves of ten supply chains for logging residues and full trees based on roadside, terminal and end-facility chipping were analyzed. The average procurement costs from forest to roadside storage were included. Railway transportation was compared to the most commonly used truck transportation options in long-distance transport. The potential for the development of supply chains was analyzed using a sensitivity analysis of 11 modified supply chain scenarios.For distances shorter than 60 km, truck transportation of loose residues and end-facility comminution was the most cost-competitive chain. Over longer distances, roadside chipping with chip truck transportation was the most cost-efficient option. When the transportation distance went from 135 to 165 km, depending on the fuel source, train-based transportation offered the lowest costs. The most cost-competitive alternative for long-distance transport included a combination of roadside chipping, truck transportation to the terminal and train transportation to the plant. Due to the low payload, the energy wood bundle chain with train transportation was not cost-competitive. Reduction of maximum truck weight increased the relative competitiveness of loose residue chains and train-based transportation, while reduction of fuel moisture increased competitiveness, especially of chip trucks.     

The link between political decision-making and energy options: Assessing future role of renewable energy and energy efficiency in Finland

European Union and Finland are confronted with much the same kind of challenges in energy policy. Because of much higher importance on energy, these issues escalated earlier in Finland including vital political decision-making. Several alternative energy paths to the future can be identified with fairly similar projected costs. The more in-depth analysis in the Finnish case suggests that, e.g., an integrated approach consisting of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency measures would be one competitive alternative to satisfy both increasing energy demand and CO₂ emission reductions already by 2020. The study shows that meeting environmental, energy security and economical targets may not as such be adequate for the future success of an energy option. There is a more profound link between the energy options and the political decision-making, implying a much broader range of criteria than just the 3 Es reflecting thus politicians’ priorities and concerns. For example, in the Finnish case renewable energy sources and energy efficiency did not match optimally the parliamentary majority's preferences when deciding on future electricity direction in 2002. The methodology suggested here can be used to improve the strategic positioning of alternative energy paths.     

The carbon sequestration potential of unmanaged forest stands in Finland under changing climatic conditions

Changes in stand-level carbon (C) storage and C flows in biomass, litter and soil organic matter in the humus layer were studied under current and changing climatic conditions in Finland with the help of a gan-type simulation model. The changing climate scenario assumed increases in mean annual temperature of 0.4°C per decade for the first one hundred years and 0.2°C per decade for the second hundred years. Warming was assumed to be larger during the winter than during the other seasons.

In southern Finland, the long term average (over 200 years) net forest ecosystem production (NEP) at the stand level was 0.4–1.0 Mg C/ha/a under the current climatic conditions, and 0.1–0.9 Mg C/ha/a under changing conditions, depending on the tree species. Under the climate change scenario, NEP decreased in Scots pine, Norway spruce and Pubescent birch stands, but increased in Pendula birch stands. During the first 25–50 years, however, NEP was found to be larger both in Scots pine and Pubescent birch stands. In northern Finland, the long term average NEP increaed, regardless of tree species, from 0.3–0.8 Mg C/ha/a to 0.4–1.0 Mg C/ha/a. The biggest changes took place in Norway spruce and Pendula birch stands.

During the early and late phases of stand development, the stands were C sources, since emissions from decaying litter and soil organic matter in the humus layer exceeded the growth of vegetation. Stands became C sources earlier under the changing climatic conditions than under the current conditions. In southern Finland, the long term average C storage was 107–201 Mg C/ha under the current climatic conditions, and 88–142 Mg C/ha under the changing conditions, depending on tree species. In northern Finland, the long term average C storage was 77–151 Mg C/ha under the current climatic conditions and 89–177 Mg C/ha under the changing conditions.     

Road transport-related energy consumption: Analysis of driving factors in Tunisia

The rapid growth of urban population and the development of road infrastructures in Tunisian cities have brought about many environmental and economic problems, including the rise scored in energy consumption and the increase in the quantity of gas emissions arising from road transport. Despite the critical nature of such problems, no policies have yet been adopted to improve energy efficiency in the transport sector. This paper aims to determine driving factors of energy consumption change for the road mode. It uses decomposition analysis to discuss the effects of economic, demographic and urban factors on the evolution of transport energy consumption. The main result highlighted in the present work is that vehicle fuel intensity, vehicle intensity, GDP per capita, urbanized kilometers and national road network are found to be the main drivers of energy consumption change in the road transport sector during 1990–2006 period. Consequently, several strategies can be elaborated to reduce road transport energy. Economic, fiscal and regulatory instruments can be applied in order to make road transport more sustainable.     

How to analyse and maximise the forest fuel supply availability to power plants in Eastern Finland

The annual use of forest fuels has grown rapidly in Finland during the 21st century. In 2007 the annual use was 5.3 TWh (firewood use excluded), whereas the targeted growth by the year 2010 is 10.6 TWh, i.e. some 5 million m³. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the maximum availability of forest fuels to CHP plants in Eastern Finland. The total availability to the selected CHP plant population was 7 TWh at the maximum transport distance of 100 km. The main share came from logging residues, 3.3 TWh, and the rest from stumps, 1.8 TWh, and small diameter energy wood, 1.9 TWh. The highest plant-specific availability reached the level of 1.7-1.8 TWh, but the overlapping procurement areas reduced the availability for most plants to a level less than 1 TWh. In all plant sites peat fuel could be partially compensated with forest fuels according to availability, but not completely due to the boiler technology. Increasing the targeted national forest fuel use presupposes the use of new logistics supply solutions, such as other transport modes and regional buffer storage networks. This makes it possible to widen the traditional procurement area-based on truck transportation, which is less than 60 km because of a dense plant network.     

Mobilization of biomass for energy from boreal forests in Finland & Russia under present sustainable forest management certification and new sustainability requirements for solid biofuels

Forest biomass is one of the main contributors to the EU's renewable energy target of 20% gross final energy consumption in 2020 (Renewable Energy Directive). Following the RED, new sustainability principles are launched by the European energy sector, such as the Initiative Wood Pellet Buyers (IWPB or SBP). The aim of our study is the investigation of the quantitative impacts from IWPB's principles for forest biomass for energy only. We deploy a bottom up method that quantifies the supplies and the costs from log harvest until forest chip delivery at a domestic consumer. We have a reference situation with existing national (forest) legislation and voluntary certification schemes (scenario 1) and a future situation with additional criteria based on the IWPB principles (scenario 2). Two country studies were selected for our (2008) survey: one in Finland with nearly 100% certification and one in Leningrad province with a minor areal share of certification in scenario 1. The sustainable potential of forest resources for energy is about 54 Mm³ (385 PJ) in Finland and about 13.5 Mm³ (95 PJ) in Leningrad in scenario 1 without extra criteria. The potential volumes reduce considerably by maximum 43% respectively 39% after new criteria from the IWPB, like a minimum use of sawlogs, stumps and slash for energy, and by an increased area of protected forests (scenario 2A Maximum extra restrictions). In case sawlogs can be used, but instead ash recycling is applied after a maximum stump and slash recovery (scenario 2B Minimum extra restrictions), the potential supply is less reduced: 5% in Finland and 22% in Leningrad region. The estimated reference costs for forest chips are between €18 and €45 solid m⁻³ in Finland and between €7 and €33 solid m⁻³ in the Leningrad region. In scenario 2A, the costs will mainly increase by €7 m⁻³ for delimbing full trees (Finland), and maximum €0.3 m⁻³ for suggested improved forest management (Leningrad region). In scenario 2B, when ash recycling is applied, costs increase by about €0.3 to €1.6 m⁻³, depending on the rate of soil contamination. This is an increase of 2%, on top of the costs in scenario 2A.     

Renewable energy policy development in the Caribbean

The Caribbean region is endowed with renewable energy resources which remain largely untapped. With an average insolation of 15-20 MJ m⁻² day⁻¹, investment in some renewable energy technologies is feasible. The major problem confronting the region is lack of financial resources. Petroleum imports continue to dominate the energy scenario except for Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados. However, increased awareness of sustainable development issues throughout the region is a major factor in support of renewable energy implementation and is a driving force for energy policy decision-making. With the necessary joint-venture partnerships and government fiscal incentives, photovoltaic technologies, wind energy and solar energy industries are poised to expand thus reducing the dependency on fossil fuel imports while preserving the environment.     

Feasibility of the Nordic forest energy harvesting technology in Poland and Scotland

Finland and Sweden have been forerunners in the development of wood harvesting machinery and methods. In both countries, small- and large-scale supply systems for wood chips have been in operation for several decades. More recently, the production and use of forest chips from logging residues and small diameter trees has been growing rapidly.The European Union (EU) has set ambitious targets for the use of renewable energy to mitigate climate change and to increase domestic energy security and self-sufficiency. The largest unutilised source for renewable energy in the EU is forest biomass. European forests could fulfill one third of the goal set for biomass-based energy production in the EU’s Biomass Action Plan. In addition, member countries have started national programmes to promote the use of biomass for energy.As a result, interest in Nordic forest energy technology has been increasing rapidly in other parts of the EU. The Finnish Forest Research Institute and its collaborators have been running a technology transfer project in ten European countries, with the goal of tailoring and adapting Nordic forest technology to local conditions through analysing the applicability, costs and overall competitiveness of selected feedstock supply technologies.This paper summarizes the findings of feasibility studies carried out in Poland and Scotland and gives an overview of the current situation and development trends of forest energy in the European Union.