Social, aesthetic and ecological aspects of hedgerows in rural landscapes as a framework for greenways

Hedgerow network landscapes may be considered as greenways, as they provide agronomic, ecological, aesthetic and cultural benefits. They are among the most threatened agricultural landscapes of western Europe. Intensification of agriculture with the conversion of permanent grassland into ploughed land and the use of new machinery leads to the enlargement of fields and the removal of hedgerows surrounding them. There is a growing concern among conservationists, rural managers and the public to maintain these greenways as a framework for landscape sustainability.In France, hedgerow removal may be planned within reallotment programmes that take into account all the land of a municipality. In this planning process, criteria for keeping or clearing woody elements are based on agronomic properties of soil, environmental quality of elements and of the network, and property boundaries. Aesthetic aspects are rarely assessed. As rural landscapes are shifting from an almost unique function of agricultural production toward a multifunction of nature conservation, environmental protection, amenity and production, the conservation of hedgerow networks becomes of greater importance. The goal is now the protection of these greenways to provide not only ecological but also recreational and cultural benefits. In a case study in Brittany, we tried to link these different aspects. Our work is based on interviews and a landscape ecological survey. We found contrasting opinions between farmers and non-farmers concerning the density of the network. Nevertheless, the two groups agree on the necessity to keep greenways as part of their cultural landscape. Most of the people were not aware of the ecological role of hedgerow networks, and perceive them only by their visual properties. We proposed various scenarios based on ecological and aesthetic principles, and defined general guidelines for the design of new landscapes during reallotment programmes. The integration of different points of view by landscape planners is the only way to link visual values to productive or ecological processes, and must be effective in the case of the management of greenways such as hedgerows.     

The influence of coniferous afforestation on lowland farmland bird communities in Ireland: different seasons and landscape contexts

Current governmental policy in Ireland is encouraging afforestation, 80% of which is likely to consist of exotic conifer species, in low-lying agricultural areas. Whereas most studies of bird diversity in forest/farmland mosaic landscapes have focused on high quality woodland remnants in a hostile agricultural matrix, this study has considered the influence of man-made plantations in a less intensively farmed context. Bird communities of three lowland agricultural landscapes (each 2000 ha in area) with intermediate or low levels of coniferous forest cover (33% or 8% approximately) were sampled in winter and summer. Though total abundance and species richness of birds of farmland habitats in the partially forested and open sites did not differ, the presence of trees in the surrounding landscape did influence abundance of some common species such as Blue Tit Parus caeruleus, Robin Erithacus rubecula and Blackbird Turdus merula. In winter, species composition of farmland habitats with and without hedgerow trees differed between forested and open landscapes. Also, the abundance of certain species varied between farmland adjacent to and remote from forest edges, in both seasons. In these landscapes, coniferous plantations did not greatly affect the mainly generalist farmland bird community, either positively or negatively. However, if the proportion of land-use occupied by forestry were to increase, reducing the available hedgerow habitat and forest edge/area ratio, diversity and abundance of declining farmland bird species might be negatively affected.     

Ecological and social evaluation of landscape in a rural area with terraced paddies in southwestern Japan

Since the 1960s, improving socio-economic conditions in rural Japan have led to the rise in man-made or man-shaped landscapes, which has in turn resulted in formerly abundant species becoming endangered. In order to conserve biodiversity in rural areas, former agricultural landscapes must be conserved. The problem is that ecologically appropriate landscapes are not always compatible with the needs of local residents or land owners. Prior to carrying out any particular conservation measures, regional landscape management must consider both ecological and social approaches and present acceptable approach-specific management goals in an open and transparent manner. This study, undertaken in the Ohaga district of southwestern Japan, a typical rural area with terraced paddy fields, sought to develop a framework for evaluating regional resources from a landscape ecology perspective. Monitoring the temporal change of landscape structures and vegetation revealed the presence of habitats, such as the pine forest and grasslands bordering the rice paddies, which harbour specific plant species or populations, some now endangered. From a social standpoint, questionnaires revealed that local inhabitants wanted landscape management options which would conserve the pine forest, paddy fields and levee grasslands. Local farmers thought that the landscape should be used and managed as a rural park, rather than for agricultural purposes. These desirable landscape element types can serve as targets for conservation, but ultimately a new system of agricultural management must be developed to sustain the rural landscape.     

Same Land Cover,Same Land Use at the Large Scale,Different Landscapes at the Small Scale: Landscape Change in Olive Plantations on Lesvos Island,Greece

In this paper, agricultural landscape change at the small scale (for example, at the farm and field level) is studied to conceptualize the processes that change these landscapes (such as features, forms and functions) according to the decisions that farmers make. The case study is olive plantations on the island of Lesvos, Greece. The five-year differences in land cover, land use and landscape at the small scale of a number of olive fields in the same area are studied in three dimensions: symbolic, productive and ecological, with data that come from the observation of practices and vegetation measurements. A conceptual framework is constructed that links the changes of six different landscapes at the individual olive field level with specific management choices of farmers. Findings demonstrate that although olive plantations are of the same land cover and land use class as at the large scale, diverging practices create different landscapes at the small scale along a continuous line with many intermediate cases. The findings also demonstrate that the whole system is dynamic, with the different small-scale landscapes changing into each other continuously due to different practices. Understanding this dynamic diversity requires studying human interventions at the right scale, the one that corresponds to the scale of the changes at the farm.     

Has the generalisation regarding conservation of trees and shrubs in Swedish agricultural landscapes gone too far?

The study aims to focus on how trees and shrubs also in future can contribute in a positive way with links to earlier traditions in small-scale agricultural landscapes. In documents presenting central directives for conservation policies it is stated that local traditions should be taken into consideration. Since local variations are very wide, but also because the initiatives have more and more been taken over by “outsiders”, this is a difficult task to handle successfully in practice. Considering how society, represented by administrators, advisors, policy-makers and researchers, may contribute in a better way many questions can be raised. In this study primarily two main questions have been explored. (1) Generalisation has been the hallmark for much research during the latest decades, but how does generalisation correspond to “reality” as it can be seen in different local situations, and within a changing perspective? (2) Certain time periods, species, and types of treatment get more attention than others in a kind of simplification, but how does this show up in practice, and how does it vary between different actors? The case study area is called “Bråbygden–Krokshult”. It is situated as an “agricultural island” consisting of 15 villages within a forest-dominated region in the south-eastern part of Sweden. It has a rich content of old remnants from different times and uses, and it is a highly recognised area for conservation interests. By interviewing farmers in the area about their trees and shrubs, about placing and management treatment, from now and back as long as they remember, large differences were found from one farm to another almost independent of natural conditions in the landscapes. In conjunction with this, regional advisors, as the other main actors, were interviewed, and the differences between the various actors are discussed as part of the article. The discrepancy between the general idea of past traditions and how uniform these have been if different farms are compared is striking and shows the importance of rethinking much of the routines of today. Moreover, the study shows that there are good reasons for rethinking how actors could interact with the administrators. Motives for a more contextual, dynamic frame planning are put forward in the discussion.     

Introducing two landscape components from Turkey: Irim and Kesik

A very particular set of landscape components, namely the irim and the kesik, found in the peri-urban rural area called Karabaglar, are considered. This area is in the contiguous land of the city of Mugla, in southwestern Turkey, and is administered by its municipality. It has a rural character, yet also includes summerhouses for the inhabitants of the city. Physical resemblance of the irim and the kesik to the hedgerow suggests similar functions, but a closer look reveals that they have a wider range of features and aspects. Functioning not only as a marker of agricultural land sub-divisions, they also play an important role in the hydrology of the area. While their specific traditional features can be used in designed landscapes, the intention here is, first, to introduce the irim, the kesik and the very special setting offered by Karabaglar, which are now under the pressure of urban encroachment. A comparison with the hedgerow is nevertheless useful in order to better understand related aspects and features.     

Introducing two landscape components from Turkey: Irim and Kesik

A very particular set of landscape components, namely the irim and the kesik, found in the peri-urban rural area called Karabaglar, are considered. This area is in the contiguous land of the city of Mugla, in southwestern Turkey, and is administered by its municipality. It has a rural character, yet also includes summerhouses for the inhabitants of the city. Physical resemblance of the irim and the kesik to the hedgerow suggests similar functions, but a closer look reveals that they have a wider range of features and aspects. Functioning not only as a marker of agricultural land sub-divisions, they also play an important role in the hydrology of the area. While their specific traditional features can be used in designed landscapes, the intention here is, first, to introduce the irim, the kesik and the very special setting offered by Karabaglar, which are now under the pressure of urban encroachment. A comparison with the hedgerow is nevertheless useful in order to better understand related aspects and features.     

Designing Whole Landscapes

A whole-landscape approach is critical to ensuring conservation and enhancement of biodiversity in farmed landscapes. Although existing agri-environmental schemes are constrained by property boundaries and voluntary take up, the potential for adopting a whole-landscape approach to planned countryside management is currently favoured by a number of factors. These include economic uncertainty in some agricultural sectors; the introduction of a reformulated rural development policy; increased understanding of relationships between biodiversity and management; and the introduction of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) technology that allows future landscapes to be visualized by stakeholders. Ecological and socio-economic aspects of whole-landscape planning in a study covering 31 neighbouring farms in west Oxfordshire are reported. A baseline was first compiled that included information on: property boundaries; land cover; relationships between hedge and field margin management and key taxa; and farmer socio-economics and attitudes towards agri-environmental measures, conservation and sustainable agriculture. Future scenarios of integrated wholelandscape management were then developed, designed to deliver amenity, environmental and biodiversity benefits. These scenarios were presented and interpreted to farmers and conservation and amenity stakeholders with the aid of GIS-based maps and three-dimensional virtual reality visualizations. Farmers' responses are reported and the potential for implementing whole-landscape planning is discussed.     

Differential response of selected taxa to landscape context and agricultural intensification

Understanding the dynamics of biodiversity in changing agricultural landscapes is a goal for nature conservation and agricultural policies. Agriculture operates at several spatio-temporal levels from field to landscape, and induces differential response of communities according to their ecological traits. Reactions of several taxa to landscape and agricultural changes was conducted along landscape gradients in northern Brittany (France) gathering 14 sites. Landscapes ranged from fine grained areas, with a large proportion of permanent grasslands, wood and hedgerows, to coarse grained ones dominated by crops. Response of communities were either loss of species along the gradient (as for Diptera Chironomidae and Empididae), replacement (Coleoptera Carabidae) and no change in species composition (small mammals). In this paper, we present why these taxa react in such different ways according to their life history traits, their mobility patterns and to which parameters of landscape structure or agriculture intensification they are sensitive. Density of hedgerow networks, and permeability of individual hedgerows determine the spatial distribution of adults Diptera according to their flying ability. Mean body size of carabid beetles significantly decreases along the gradient of agricultural intensification, small species adapted to disturbance replacing large ones that are characteristic of stable habitats. The same small mammal species are found all along the two gradients, but their relative abundance is linked to the importance of crops versus more stable habitats in the landscape.We concluded that species survival in those fine grained agricultural landscapes depends on processes operating at the site scale and defining habitat quality, and processes operating at the landscape and/or metapopulation scale such as landscape modifications in connectivity and habitat availability.     

Designing Whole Landscapes

A whole-landscape approach is critical to ensuring conservation and enhancement of biodiversity in farmed landscapes. Although existing agri-environmental schemes are constrained by property boundaries and voluntary take up, the potential for adopting a whole-landscape approach to planned countryside management is currently favoured by a number of factors. These include economic uncertainty in some agricultural sectors; the introduction of a reformulated rural development policy; increased understanding of relationships between biodiversity and management; and the introduction of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) technology that allows future landscapes to be visualized by stakeholders. Ecological and socio-economic aspects of whole-landscape planning in a study covering 31 neighbouring farms in west Oxfordshire are reported. A baseline was first compiled that included information on: property boundaries; land cover; relationships between hedge and field margin management and key taxa; and farmer socio-economics and attitudes towards agri-environmental measures, conservation and sustainable agriculture. Future scenarios of integrated wholelandscape management were then developed, designed to deliver amenity, environmental and biodiversity benefits. These scenarios were presented and interpreted to farmers and conservation and amenity stakeholders with the aid of GIS-based maps and three-dimensional virtual reality visualizations. Farmers' responses are reported and the potential for implementing whole-landscape planning is discussed .     

Landscape heterogeneity correlates with recreational values: a case study from Swedish agricultural landscapes and implications for policy

Agri-environmental schemes are often targeted at heterogenic landscapes to support several ecosystem services besides food production. The question is whether heterogenic landscapes also support recreation values. Previous studies suggest this but statistical analysis of the relation between heterogeneity and recreation is lacking. To assess this, we used a quantitative Landscape Heterogeneity Index (LHI), developed for biodiversity conservation. We asked five different user groups to score 12 photographs of landscapes depicting different LHI. All user groups, especially conservationists and hunters, preferred the heterogeneous landscapes and this difference was statistically significant for all groups except farmers. Accessibility, in terms of roads, had no obvious impact on the recreational value conveyed by the photos. The paper provides evidence that the recreational value amplifies biodiversity-based values of heterogeneous landscapes and argues that such landscapes also provide resilience and insurance value buffering against unexpected risks. Implications for policy are discussed.

Highlights ? Recreational value was positively correlated to landscape heterogeneity.

? This correlation was statistically significant for all user groups except farmers.

? Accessibility, in terms of roads, had no obvious impact on the recreational value.

? The multi-functionality of heterogeneous agricultural landscapes including resilience and the insurance value should be better acknowledged in policy.

     

Homogenisation and fragmentation of the European landscape: ecological consequences and solutions

The rural landscapes of Europe are in both a homogenisation and a fragmentations process. Regional differences are disappearing due to the dominating equalising impact of the worldwide market. If regional differences are not maintained and protected then the cultural landscapes of Europe and their biological diversity will decline and only remnants will remain. Models on agricultural management and data on landscape changes from all Europe confirm this. Regional differences have to be maintained through conscious environmental and ecological planning. Concepts for this have been developed in all countries in Europe, such as the ecostabilisation concept and the concept of ecological networks. Nature management by farmers is more and more accepted. Landscape planners should be aware of their changing role from designer towards negotiator with the actors in the landscape with different landscape functions and planning tasks in mind.     

A review of ET measurement techniques for estimating the water requirements of urban landscape vegetation

Increasing urbanisation combined with population growth places greater demands on dwindling water supplies. This is especially the case in arid and semi-arid areas like Australia, which is known as the driest inhabited continent on earth. Sustainable irrigation management necessitates better understanding of water requirements in order to decrease environmental risks and increase water use efficiency. Although the water requirements of agricultural crops are well established in field and laboratory studies, little research has been conducted to investigate the water requirements of urban green spaces. In addition, most previous research investigations have focused on the water requirements of turf grasses and not on other landscape plant species. Landscape plants can include various species of trees, shrubs and turf grasses with different planting densities and microclimates. Such complicated environments make measuring the water requirements of urban landscapes difficult.

This paper reviews previous studies and techniques for measuring the water requirements of urban landscapes and describes how optimum irrigation management strategies for urban landscape vegetation can assist in better water conservation, improved landscape quality and reduced water costs. The authors conclude that WUCOLS is a practical approach that can provide an initial estimate of urban landscape water demand but ideally this should be further refined based on the health and aesthetic condition of the urban vegetation. The authors recommend calibration of the WUCOLS estimates with an in-situ method such as a soil water balance.     

Hunting and Landscape in Denmark: Farmers' Management of Hunting Rights and Landscape Changes

Hunting represents an important activity in Danish rural landscapes. In this paper, we analyse recent developments in farmers' management of the right to hunt and associated landscape activities in three agricultural regions based on surveys from 1995/96 and 2008. The results show that the total area on which farmers hunt has increased, especially the area on which the owner is the hunter. This indicates that interest in hunting is increasing, and the interest for hunting may play an increasing role as a landscape activity and as a motive to become a farm property owner. Concerning landscape management, non-hunters, surprisingly, seem to have a more game-friendly management practice than hunters. On the other hand, hunters own farms with forests and/or farms located in areas of high landscape heterogeneity more often than non-hunters. Local hunting associations play an interesting role in relation to non-owners' accessibility to hunting and such associations may play a significant role in the future management of the landscape as a commons.     

Landscapes and livelihoods: environmental protection and agricultural support in the wake of Agenda 2000

Abstract

The European Commission's Agenda 2000 for reform of the Common Agricultural Policy is not the radical overhaul of agricultural support that was expected. Regarded not as the conclusion, however, but as the start of a process of reform that will increasingly be subject to external influence, the proposals mark an important stage on the road to an integrated European Rural Policy. So far as landscape protection is concerned, two key questions need to be asked: first, how successful have policy makers been in tackling one of the underlying causes of environmental destruction by decoupling agricultural support from farmers’ production decisions? Second, to what extent have they succeeded in recoupling support to wider social and environmental objectives? This article assesses Agenda 2000 in these terms. It goes on to discuss what decoupling and recoupling might mean for the future relationship between farming livelihoods and the conservation of agricultural landscapes in the context of a more liberalized system of agricultural support.     

Exploring public preferences for traditional farming landscapes

Given that an increasing share of budgetary resources are now being spent on measures aimed at protecting the visual quality of agricultural landscapes it will be important to better understand individuals’ landscape preferences and the factors that influence those preferences. Within this context, using a nationally representive survey of Irish residents, the central aim of this study was to gain more insight into people's preferences regarding traditional farming landscapes. Individuals rated agricultural landscapes in terms of beauty quite highly but given a choice prefer traditional more extensive farming landscapes over more modern intensive farming landscapes. Moreover, the results suggest that there are systematic differences in preferences for traditional farm landscapes between different demographic groupings and also depending on individuals’ environmental value orientations. Accordingly, in studying preferences for agricultural landscapes in particular areas it will be necessary to consider the social and demographic characteristics of the population as well as the physical aspects of the landscape.     

Changes in agricultural landscape pattern and its spatial relationship with forestland in the State of Selangor, peninsular Malaysia

In Malaysia, the development of two major agricultural crops, i.e. oil palm and rubber, is one of the primary causes of forest loss. However, understanding of this relationship has not been quantified, which is vital to improve the planning and management of the agricultural land uses. To understand the relationship, this study addresses their dynamic change, patchiness and spatial relationship with forestland in the State of Selangor, Malaysia as a case study. Data development and analysis were based on three land-use maps of 1966, 1981 and 1995 where forest and, wetland forest and marshland land use categories were referred to as forestland. Two defined natural landscapes; forest and wetland landscapes were used as a basic unit of analysis to determine the patchiness of the agricultural lands at the expense of large tract of forestland. During the periods studied, oil palm area increased whereas rubber area reduced. The development of oil palm had caused loss much of forestland, particularly wetland forest and marshland. Its expansion at the expense of large tract of wetland forest and marshland earnestly occurred between 1966 and 1981 but slowed down between 1981 and 1995. By using the landscape type approach this study recommended a way to determine the patchiness of the agricultural lands at the expense of large tract of forestland. With these findings, we conclude that it is important to understanding the relationship quantitatively in order to describe the implications for land development of the agricultural crops.     

农业结构转型对乡村景观与居民满意度的影响——以重庆九岭村为例

研究农业结构转型对山地乡村景观与居民生活满意度的影响,对促进山地欠发达地区乡村转型发展、乡村景观改善及居民生活质量提升具有重要意义。以重庆开州区九岭村为例,通过GIS遥感、野外实地填图和半结构访谈等方法分析九岭村农业结构调整状况,以及由此带来的乡村景观变化和居民生活满意度提升。结果显示：1）九岭村农业结构调整向规模化、专业化和非粮化的“增效提质”转型方向发展,农业结构调整沿着更加契合山地自然条件的方向优化,具有明显的垂直分布层级规律;2）乡村景观变化具有显著的空间多级分化特征,平坡较低、缓坡低和中坡中地形位区域的景观多样性指数（LDI）、景观破碎度指数（FI）、最大斑块指数（LPI）和景观聚集度指数（AI）得到较大改善,斜坡较高和陡坡高地形位区域的LDI、FI和AI变化幅度最低;3）农业纯收入、乡村旅游收入占比、村交通设施条件以及人均实际耕地面积是影响居民生活满意度的显著性要素;4）研究构建的“农产品非粮化的增效提质需求推动农业结构调整-农用地利用方式转变-乡村景观的多功能再造-乡村居民生活质量提升”的分析路径能够有效揭示农业结构调整、乡村景观变化和居民生活满意度的三位一体耦合关系。     

Farmers’ livelihood assets and adoption of sustainable land management practices in north-western highlands of Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, farmers’ adoption and continued use of introduced land management technologies have not been widespread to reduce soil erosion and soil fertility depletion to an acceptable level. An important set of factors in farmers’ use of improved agricultural technologies is generally known to be their possession of livelihood assets. This study examines the influence of ownership of livelihood assets in farmers’ decisions to use cattle manure as land improvement technology, which is currently being promoted by Ethiopia’s agricultural extension system. The study was conducted in Dangila woreda (district) in the north-western highlands of Ethiopia. Data were collected from a survey of 201 rural households from April to June 2011 and in October 2012. Logistic regression modelling and Chi-square and t-tests were used to analyse data. The findings show that plot distance from residence, number of livestock owned, use of dung for fuel, maize–vegetable–fruit intercropping, land to man ratio and perception of land tenure security were important determinants of manure use among the farmers. Existing and future local development interventions should focus on these factors to improve the farmers’ capability to invest in cattle manure application and sustainable land management.