Large-scale Spatial Patterns in Species Richness of Orthoptera in the Greater London Area,United Kingdom: Relationships with Land Cover

This paper explores species richness of insects of the order Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, etc.) along spatial gradients defined using remotely sensed land cover data for an area of 5600?km² centred on the city of London. The number of species within grid-squares of a national atlas, controlled for recording effort, declined along composite multivariate spatial gradients representing landscapes with increasing dominance of arable and urban land uses, yet was uncorrelated with the area of an individual land cover representing cultivated land, and only weakly correlated with a second land cover representing urban development. Few orthopteran species reside directly within either arable crops or non-vegetated urban land covers. Thus, whilst the areas of the individual land covers are intuitively sensible (and simple) measures of agricultural and urban cover respectively, their areas do not capture ecologically relevant information about variation in the composition of the uncultivated and non-urban land cover matrices within which the species actually reside. The results illustrate the advantages of using multivariate data reduction techniques (such as the Principle Components Analysis applied here) to describe spatial gradients in the extent of agricultural and urban influence. Relatively few landscape scale studies have focused on insects and the present study illustrates a) the potential for using Orthoptera to explore issues of biodiversity in the landscape and to monitor impacts of land use via analysis of large-scale spatial patterns from national species distribution atlases combined with remotely sensed land cover, and b) the importance of selecting appropriate measures of land use which incorporate information on the complex mix of land cover types utilised by the species under investigation.     

Using the past to indicate the possible presence of relics in the present-day landscape: the Western Front of the Great War in Belgium

The First World War (WWI) had a notable influence on the landscape at the former Western Front in Belgium. Research on a landscape scale is necessary to understand the destructive and constructive impact of the war and its consequences for the post-war landscape in a holistic manner. This paper focuses on the trajectory and impact analysis of three study areas with contrasting landscape types and aims to indicate possible preserved military relics today. Therefore, landscape changes are studied using historical aerial photographs (WWI and WWII) and contemporary orthophotos. A military landscape characterisation is made based on land use/land cover and linear structures that were mapped throughout time. Specific landscape trajectories could be designated as areas with a possible preservation of WWI heritage, with a related impact degree. The results are useful for sustainable heritage management and for further interdisciplinary research on WWI-heritage, by providing a broad knowledge of the area.     

Remote sensing and GIS in modeling visual landscape change: a case study of the northwestern arid coast of Egypt

Land use planners in many countries have recognized the importance of the aesthetic values of landscape. Their desire to incorporate these values into decision-making processes has created a need to identify valid ways to quantify the scenic characteristics of landscapes. This has led to an increasing interest in the use of spatial data and geographic information systems (GIS) methodology in assessing visual attributes of the landscape. The objective of the present study is to assess the visual changes in a rapidly developing coastal area of Egypt using remotely sensed data (satellite images and aerial photographs) and raster GIS modeling. The analysis assesses changes between a period characterized by a vernacular, relatively natural landscape (1950s) and the beginning of the exploitation of the region for resorts (1990s). Using land use/land cover classes extracted from the satellite images and aerial photographs, four visual attributes of landscape are identified: land use/land cover diversity, activity (degree of naturalness), proximity to the shoreline, and topographic variety. A composite index is also developed. Although these attributes and the composite index rely mostly on the type of land use/land cover information on the landscape under consideration, the adopted techniques succeed in detecting several changes in the attributes, spatially locating them and mapping the magnitude of their changes. This study demonstrates what can be done to analyze and assess what is usually considered an incommensurable resource, the visual attributes of landscapes. It also reveals the extent of the impact of unplanned or ill-planned activities on one of the fragile resources of arid landscapes.     

Exploring Indigenous Landscape Classification across Different Dimensions: A Case Study from the Bolivian Amazon

Decisions on landscape management are often dictated by government officials based on their own understandings of how landscape should be used and managed, but rarely considering local peoples’ understandings of the landscape they inhabit. We use data collected through free listings, field transects and interviews to describe how an Amazonian group of hunter-horticulturalists, the Tsimane’, classify and perceive the importance of different elements of the landscape across the ecological, socioeconomic, and spiritual dimensions. The Tsimane’ recognise nine folk ecotopes (i.e. culturally recognised landscape units) and use a variety of criteria (including geomorphological features and landscape uses) to differentiate ecotopes from one another. The Tsimane’ rank different folk ecotopes in accordance with their perceived ecological, socioeconomic, and spiritual importance. Understanding how local people perceive their landscape contributes towards a landscape management planning paradigm that acknowledges the continuing contributions to management of landscape by its inhabitants, as well as their cultural and land use rights.     

Integrated and decentralised protection and development of mountain landscapes

This article discusses how new trends for decentralised and integrated protection and local development of mountain landscapes have appeared in recent management practice, and how decentralised protection and management models could contribute to integrated and dynamic local development practice. Case studies performed on two larger protected areas and two regional parks based on local initiatives and agreements show that the two trends are quite visible in Norwegian mountain landscape management, but only to a certain extent. Our suggestions for promoting these trends are to consider: (1) revising the protected area regulations managed by the nature protection authorities to also include local development as a specific purpose; (2) transferring the protected area responsibility to the land use planning authorities; and (3) using regional parks as a framework for integrated and decentralised development within the existing restrictions and possibilities.     

Proposing an agricultural belt to protect a city’s semi-rural characteristics: The example of Bartın,Turkey

Urban sprawl, a type of urban expansion, is perceived as a global problem due to changes in land conversions and landscape patterns. Farms, forests and shores have been converted into urban areas; this transformation affects energy flow, biochemical cycles and climatic conditions. To follow and evaluate the physical, social and ecological results of urban sprawl, we identified and measured temporal changes in land use and land cover. This is especially important for urban planning policies. In this study, temporal change is identified in the city of Bart?n using remote sensing and landscape metrics. An analysis of land cover and land transformation was done with LANDSAT5 TM/ETM satellite images from 1985 and 2015. These images were used to identify agricultural areas as land that has most commonly undergone drastic changes. Bart?n is a small semi-rural city that has undergone significant changes. Among the most important reasons for these changes were uncontrolled urban sprawl due to political and administrative decisions that lacked long-term planning and a comprehensive city plan. This study examined the risk factors for loss of semi-rural characteristics using the example of Bart?n city. To protect semi-rural city characteristics and control urban sprawl, we propose an agricultural belt based on spatial suitability and an evaluation of landscape metrics.     

APPLICATION OF RESEARCH ON ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN LA NDSCAPE PLANNING

Landscape planning adjusts spatial structures and functions by altering the types of land use / land cover and the patterns of landscapes, and thus further impacts ecosystem services. This paper examines the impacts of landscape planning on ecosystem services and draws the conclusion that the control over the types of land use / land cover, the altering of landscape patterns, and the adjustment of landscape functional characteristics could change the type, quality, and performance of ecosystem services, respectively. Through an overall review on the application of ecosystem service evaluation, spatial mapping, and scenario simulation, this paper further concludes their roles in landscape planning: ecosystem service evaluation provides means to ensure scientific landscape planning; spatial mapping serves as a basis to the decision making; and scenario simulation visualizes all kinds of possibilities for an optimal choice. At the same time, such applications in landscape planning practices, ranging from green space planning, ecological conservation redline planning, land use planning to biodiversity protection planning, are exemplified. Finally, this paper summarizes existing research findings and limitations and proposes that future research is expected to study the relationship between landscape planning and ecosystem services, to build a dynamic composite planning framework that can improve ecosystem services, and to propel the research on the tradeoff-and-synergy among ecosystem services in landscape planning.     

Applying the fuzzy set theory for medium and small scale landscape assessment

The goal of a sustainable land use and landscape development can only be reached by re-establishing regulation functions. That is why it is necessary to assess such a function besides others (production, carrier, information) to derive different potentials for various parts of landscape properties and to promote these potentials by introducing relevant measures. A first step in this direction is to assess profoundly how capable landscape units are. Regarding landscape units as areas of assessment they have to be constant for a long time, especially along their boundaries. As land use changes profoundly on a large scale, landscape units have to be separated on a regional scale. Thinking in geographic dimensions it is the chronological level we have to work on. Unfortunately, there are no assessment methods for landscape functions in this dimension. Due to the fact that all traditional assessment procedures are only valid for small areas it is necessary to look for methods that are of value for larger areas too. The use of fuzzy set methods and fuzzy logic seems to be promising. Traditional assessment methods are taken and combined with fuzzy set theory to get results for larger landscape units. Taking the function of ground water protection as an example the method is exemplarily described and applied on landscape units in the agglomeration area of Leipzig–Halle in the central part of Eastern Germany. Finally, a suggestion for the cartographic implementation is given.     

Development of agro-environmental scenarios to support pesticide risk assessment in Europe

This paper describes work carried out within the EU-funded FOOTPRINT project to characterize the diversity of European agricultural and environmental conditions with respect to parameters which most influence the environmental fate of pesticides. Pan-European datasets for soils, climate, land cover and cropping were intersected, using GIS, to identify the full range of unique combinations of climate, soil and crop types which characterize European agriculture. The resulting FOOTPRINT European agro-environmental dataset constitutes a large number of polygons (approximately 1,700,000) with attribute data files for i) area fractions of annual crops related to each arable-type polygon (as an indicator of its probability of occurrence); and, ii) area fractions of each soil type in each polygon (as an indicator of its probability of occurrence). A total of 25,044 unique combinations of climate zones, agricultural land cover classes, administrative units and soil map units were identified. The same soil/crop combinations occur in many polygons which have the same climate while the fractions of the soils and arable crops are different. The number of unique combinations of climate, soil and agricultural land cover class is therefore only 7961. 26-year daily meteorological data, soil profile characteristics and crop management features were associated with each unique combination. The agro-environmental scenarios developed can be used to underpin the parameterization of environmental fate models for pesticides and should also have relevance for other agricultural pollutants. The implications for the improvement and further development of risk assessment procedures for pesticides are discussed.     

城市热缓解的基于自然的解决方案与实施路径——以北京市为例

城市热岛与高温热浪威胁当代人类的生活与健康。基于自然的解决方案（NbS）不仅能够有效应对社会风险挑战、提升人类福祉,还有助于生物多样性保护与区域可持续发展。首先论述了NbS框架下的城市热缓解方案：1）优先识别应对城市热岛与热浪的社会挑战的关键区域;2）基于适宜尺度和面向生态系统完整性提升,进行热缓解方案设计;3）热缓解方案的经济可行性、包容性治理、适应性管理、主流化与可持续性。其次以北京市为例,探索基于NbS的城市热缓解方案设计及其实施路径。结果显示：北京市五环内城市热岛效应明显,区域内地表温度（land surface temperature, LST）对植被和不透水地表等覆被特征的变化响应在600 m×600 m的网格单元最稳定;热单元主要分布在五环内的南部,景观组分特征呈现为集中连片的建筑和不透水地表以及分散的裸地和蓝绿空间斑块;针对不同的热单元应采取适应性的热缓解措施,如分散的裸地型单元适宜采用建设城市森林公园的办法,大型低层建筑型单元适宜采用立体绿化,小型低层建筑型单元适宜“见缝插绿”,交通型单元适宜构建绿道等。研究可为未来基于NbS的城市热缓解方案设计提供科学依据与技术参考。     

Local and landscape scale variables impact parasitoid assemblages across an urbanization gradient

Urbanization is a major driver of land cover change worldwide, yet little is known about how urbanization affects beneficial arthropod communities. This study examined how local and landscape scale variables associated with urbanization influenced parasitic Hymenoptera abundance and diversity in residential and commercial properties along a rural to urban landscape gradient in Wisconsin. At a landscape scale, 300 m surrounding sites, land cover percentages were calculated for five cover classes: impervious cover, forest, grassland, agriculture, and urban green space. In addition, habitat diversity (Simpson's index) was calculated for the landscape surrounding study sites. At a local scale (within the boundaries of an individual property), flower diversity, flower area, tree density, and hardscape were measured and related to parasitoid abundance and diversity. During 2006 and 2007, parasitoids were sampled twice a month June-August using yellow sticky cards. Parasitoid abundance was a positive function of flower diversity, a local scale variable. The positive relationship between parasitoid abundance and flower diversity only occurred in areas containing high to moderate levels of urban development, suggesting parasitoids locally benefited from the increased availability of floral resources in urban but not rural sites. Parasitoid diversity decreased as impervious cover increased in the surrounding landscape. Parasitoid diversity decreased by approximately 10% in highly urbanized sites relative to rural sites, a pattern driven by several parasitoid families not detected in urban sites. These results suggest conservation strategies that focus on landscape variables at multiple scales can play an integral role in preserving beneficial arthropods across urban landscapes.     

生态系统服务制图单元如何更好地支持风景园林规划设计？

若对生态系统服务（Ecosystem Services,简称ESs）制图单元没有清晰的认识,将有碍于ESs制图结果在风景园林实践中的应用水平。通过系统性评述,综述近11年106篇与ESs制图相关的SCI文章,并将现有ESs制图单元归纳为4种常见类型和3种单元规模。研究发现：在3种风景园林实践的尺度上,ESs制图单元表现出不同的选择优先性,以及对风景园林实践需求回应的不足。对于ESs制图单元的选择,提出3个实践尺度上可能的解决方法以更好地支持风景园林规划设计,包括：引入更多与土地利用单元细节相关的信息参与ESs制图或在明确的地块内进行ESs评估,基于地理/生物物理特征对土地利用单元进行细分以形成具有生态意义的空间单元,以及构建与现实中已有规划管理边界相对应且支持相关生态过程并包含完整生态系统的空间单元。研究结果能够为提升ESs知识在风景园林实践中的应用水平提供新的思路和借鉴。     

风景名胜区中乡村类文化景观的保护与管理

我国风景名胜区中拥有大面积乡村地域,但乡村类文化景观未被列入被保护景源.在风景名胜区中保护乡村类文化景观,有助于保护乡村自然文化遗产,合理利用区内自然资源和减少区内社区与管理机构的矛盾.风景名胜区中乡村类文化景观的发展目标和保护原则,并从土地权属与管理责任、社会系统调控、经济发展引导和乡村景观规划方面,探讨保护与管理的行动准则.     

Spatial and temporal dynamics of land use pattern in Turkey: A case study in İnegöl

Recognition and understanding of landscape dynamics as a historical legacy of disturbances are necessary for sustainable management of forest ecosystems. This study analyzed forest dynamics and spatial–temporal changes in land use/land cover pattern in a sub-temperate like alluvial forest land with 1778 km² area along the Eagan Sea coast of Turkey (İnegöl). This area is studied by comparing Landsat images from 1987 to 2001 and evaluated with spatial analyses of forest cover type maps from 1972, 1983, 1993 to 2004 using GIS. The study investigated temporal changes of spatial structure of forest conditions over the period using Fragstats™.The results showed that the forested areas increased both in between 1972 and 1993 years (3.3%) and between 1987 and 2001 years (6.7%). In terms of spatial configuration, İnegöl forests are generally fragmented in the latter periods due to intensive forest utilization, illegal use, expansion of settlements and infrastructural development in the lowlands. Land use pattern significantly changed over time depending on a few factors such as unregulated management actions, social pressure and demographic movements. In conclusion, land use changes have developed in favor of forestry over time between 1972–1993 and 1987–2001. The study revealed that demographic movements have a minor effect on landscape dynamics. Both spatial and temporal changes and the factors affecting these changes should be determined for developing sustainable management of forest resources.     

Relationships between visual landscape preferences and map-based indicators of landscape structure

There is increasing awareness of the need to monitor trends in our constantly changing agricultural landscapes. Monitoring programmes often use remote sensing data and focus on changes in land cover/land use in relation to values such as biodiversity, cultural heritage and recreation. Although a wide range of indicators is in use, landscape aesthetics is a topic that is frequently neglected. Our aim was to determine whether aspects of landscape content and configuration could be used as surrogate measures for visual landscape quality in monitoring programmes based on remote sensing. In this paper, we test whether map-derived indicators of landscape structure from the Norwegian monitoring programme for agricultural landscapes are correlated with visual landscape preferences. Two groups of people participated: (1) locals and (2) non-local students. Using the total dataset, we found significant positive correlations between preferences and spatial metrics, including number of land types, number of patches and land type diversity. In addition, preference scores were high where water was present within the mapped image area, even if the water itself was not visible in the images. When the dataset was split into two groups, we found no significant correlation between the preference scores of the students and locals. Whilst the student group preferred images portraying diverse and heterogeneous landscapes, neither diversity nor heterogeneity was correlated with the preference scores of the locals. We conclude that certain indicators based on spatial structure also have relevance in relation to landscape preferences in agricultural landscapes. However, the finding that different groups of people prefer different types of landscape underlines the need for care when interpreting indicator values.     

Changes in farming system and population as drivers of land cover and landscape dynamics: The case of enclosed and semi-openfield systems in Northern Galicia (Spain)

In this study, we aimed to document the changes in the bocage and semi-openfield landscapes of Northern Galicia from the second half of the 20th century and analyse the factors driving landscape changes. In particular, we examined (1) the dynamics of the field systems characteristics in these landscapes and (2) the interrelations with changes in dominant land cover, population and farming systems (in terms of productive structure, land use system and farming practices) dynamics. The picture of the1950s showed mainly semi-openfield field systems and nucleated villages that extended through valleys in the lowland, with banks in rough coastline sectors. In the highlands we found enclosed fields and scattered hamlets interspersed within large extensions of scrubland. In between both systems, a transitional area with mixed characteristics appeared. In 2000, the transitional area expanded from the former semi-openfields and banks areas, while the highlands still retain the enclosed character. The dominant land cover has experienced significant changes throughout the area, following an increase in woodland. A reorientation of the farming system was observed, a shift in which cropland lost importance with regard to grassland, the use of scrubland became marginal and forestry increased. The decrease in the number of farms and livestock shows decline in agricultural activity. This can be closely related to changes in dominant land cover and cropping patterns. Despite recent changes, this area still retains characteristic features of traditional landscapes such as the spatial pattern of field systems and ancestral cultural practices (e.g. extensive grazing of the scrubland).     

Relationships between visual landscape preferences and map-based indicators of landscape structure

There is increasing awareness of the need to monitor trends in our constantly changing agricultural landscapes. Monitoring programmes often use remote sensing data and focus on changes in land cover/land use in relation to values such as biodiversity, cultural heritage and recreation. Although a wide range of indicators is in use, landscape aesthetics is a topic that is frequently neglected. Our aim was to determine whether aspects of landscape content and configuration could be used as surrogate measures for visual landscape quality in monitoring programmes based on remote sensing. In this paper, we test whether map-derived indicators of landscape structure from the Norwegian monitoring programme for agricultural landscapes are correlated with visual landscape preferences. Two groups of people participated: (1) locals and (2) non-local students. Using the total dataset, we found significant positive correlations between preferences and spatial metrics, including number of land types, number of patches and land type diversity. In addition, preference scores were high where water was present within the mapped image area, even if the water itself was not visible in the images. When the dataset was split into two groups, we found no significant correlation between the preference scores of the students and locals. Whilst the student group preferred images portraying diverse and heterogeneous landscapes, neither diversity nor heterogeneity was correlated with the preference scores of the locals. We conclude that certain indicators based on spatial structure also have relevance in relation to landscape preferences in agricultural landscapes. However, the finding that different groups of people prefer different types of landscape underlines the need for care when interpreting indicator values.     

A method for estimating changes in the visibility of land cover

An inventory of resources that includes the contribution made by land cover to the visual landscape can be used in monitoring and assessing the impacts of change in land cover on the visual landscape of an area. A method is presented for assessing the visual resources of the landscape as applied to a case study area in the western part of the proposed Cairngorm National Park in Scotland. The method is based upon measuring the extent of the land from which different land cover types may be visible, on a cell-by-cell basis, using high resolution Digital Elevation Models combined with interpreted land cover data as inputs. The results show a reduction in the overall contribution of scattered, natural woodland to the visual landscape, and an increase in the visual contribution of plantation woodland at the expense of heather moorland. The geographical distribution of the changes in visibility of land cover types is shown and the potential of the method for providing a spatial context for expressing the results of landscape preference modelling is discussed.     

四川省主要城市市域绿色基础设施 形态学空间分析及景观组成研究

成渝城市群是西部地区的国家级城市群,伴随成渝城市群城镇化进程的加快,城市建设用地扩展与林地、耕地保护的矛盾日益加剧。以成渝城市群四川境内的13个主要城市市域范围为研究对象,首先应用形态学空间分析(MSPA)方法,准确识别并量化了各城市绿色基础设施(GI)网络结构要素,其次计算出各城市GI网络结构要素的土地利用类型占比,最后应用聚类分析法(ClusterAnalysis),以13个城市的土地利用类型在GI网络结构要素中所占比例作为变量因子,根据GI网络中景观组成的相似程度对13个城市进行分类,分析并总结了不同类别下城市GI景观组成的特征及差异。结果表明:各城市的核心区和连接桥是主要GI网络结构要素类型,7类GI网络结构要素在城市中主要由耕地和林地构成,不同城市在景观组成特征上具有一定相关性。研究结果对客观认识各城市GI特征、成渝城市群的生态网络构建及其保护规划有重要的参考价值。     

Multivariate land class and land cover correlations in Northern Ireland

Comparison of the scaled hierarchical structure of a multivariate land classification of Northern Ireland, with land class ordinations based on field-derived land cover, has been made. Land class distribution on the land cover ordination was reflected in the hierarchical structure of the land classification. This correlation contributes to a validation of the land classification as a sample stratification for landscape ecological survey.Land class ordination gave insight into the distribution of ecological resources in the landscape. Upland land classes showed the greatest degree of separation, indicating a greater heterogeneity of land cover compared with the lowlands. The lowland land classes showed much less spatial separation on the ordination, a characteristic that probably relates to agricultural intensification.The distribution of the lowland land classes on the ordination was correlated with climatic, geological and landform gradients. This indicates regional differences in the farmed landscape and demonstrates the value of the land classification for stratifying landscape ecological survey and developing countryside management strategies.