Landscape changes of Rome through tree-lined roads

Rome has greatly expanded in the course of the last century, after it became the capital of the Italian state in 1870. In this period, many areas were built according to different urbanistic criteria. The city may now be divided into urban units (Wards, Districts, Suburbs and Zones), which have an almost concentric disposition. The changes of the whole urban landscape and of the single urban units (UUs) have been analysed by studying the different tree-species planted along the roads. A database has been created using the four censuses of the tree-lined roads made by the city administration in 1898, 1955, 1971 and 1998. This analysis has shown a strong link between the specific cultural and political period and the tree-species used. Moreover, for each year, the UUs have been classified according to the percentage composition of the species. The results have been mapped using the Arcview 3.1 GIS program in order to integrate them with a more general project on GIS-based cartography of the natural and anthropic vegetation of Rome.     

Kibbutz ideology and lifestyle as reflected in the Kibbutz gardens

The kibbutz is a self‐contained collective community which developed its settlement amidst a man‐made park landscape. This society's value system of equality and direct democracy developed concurrently with the reclamation of a depleted landscape, the planting of trees and gardening. The characteristic features of the kibbutz park landscape clearly reveals this society's ideology.     

Reducing habitat fragmentation by minor rural roads through traffic calming

The rural road network suffers continually from ambiguity. On the one hand, the presence of this network and its traffic flows offer accessibility and make a contribution to economic development. While on the other, its presence and its traffic flows cause fragmentation. The actual ecological impact of this fragmentation depends on several variables such as species and road characteristics. This paper focuses on minor rural roads. The spatial concept developed to address this, ‘traffic calming rural area’ (TCRA) is intended to address both accessibility and sustainable environment. It does this by concentrating the current diffuse traffic flows on a few rural highways, thus, creating rural residential areas within the region. This paper presents some formulae to quantify the resulting fragmentation. A more practical method compares the sizes of continuous landscape units. Both the formulae and the method have been used for two pilot studies. The results indicate that implementing the TCRA concept leads to larger continuous landscape units, thereby helping to reduce fragmentation effects.     

Conservation recommendations for a sand quarry at Gwithian Beach,St. Ives Bay,Cornwall

Summary and Discussion

The findings suggest that stressed individuals feel significantly better after exposure to nature scenes rather than to American urban scenes lacking nature elements. Compared to the influences of the urban scenes, the salient effect of the nature exposures was to increase Positive Affect — including feelings of affection friendliness, playfulness, and elation. The increase in positive affect produced by the nature scenes is consistent with the finding that the nature exposures also significantly reduced Fear Arousal. According to psychological theories, a reduction in arousal or activation produces pleasurable feelings if an individual is experiencing stress or excessive arousal (Berlyne, 1971, pp. 81–82). In contrast to the nature scenes, the urban views tended to work against emotional well‐being. The major effect of the urban scenes was to significantly increase Sadness. There was also a consistent but non‐significant tendency for the urban scenes to‐aggravate feelings of Anger/Aggression, and for the nature scenes to reduce such feelings. The urban exposures also held the attention of subjects somewhat less effectively than the nature exposures. These findings were stable across sexes, and applied to subjects who had grown up in either rural or urban environments.

The urban and nature scenes produced different changes in psychological states despite the fact that the complexity levels of the slide samples were similar. Largely on the basis of laboratory studies by psychologists using ‘non‐landscape’ stimuli, complexity has received considerable emphasis as a variable influencing emotional activation. The findings here suggest the possibility that other visual properties — related to nature versus man‐made differences — are also of importance. It should also be pointed out that the sample of urban scenes, compared to most American urban landscapes, contained a disproportionately large number of nonblighted, relatively aesthetic views. For example, the urban collection included only one slide of a roadside strip development; ‘strips’ are one of the most common, as well as visually blighted, features in American urban areas. The nature sample, on the other hand, contained an unrepresentatively large number of high complexity scenes that were ‘scruffy’ and relatively unaesthetic in appearance. This meant that the experiment was a conservative test of the effects of nature versus urban scenes. If the slide collections had been selected using a geographical sampling technique rather than a procedure that favoured the urban scenes, it is likely that the differences among the effects of the nature and urban scenes would have been even more extreme.

The findings have a number of implications for environmental planning and design. At the most general level, the results suggest that outdoor visual environments can influence individuals’ psychological well‐being, and therefore should be given explicit attention in planning and design decisions. Most planners have some sensitivity for aesthetic aspects of environments, and in fact there exists some direct empirical evidence showing that aesthetic benefits can be of considerable importance (e.g. Ulrich, 1974; Shafer and Mietz, 1969). The findings here imply that the importance of visual landscapes is by no means limited to aesthetics, but also includes a range of influences on emotional states. More specifically, an individual's experiences in terms of his degree of visual contact with nature or urban scenes may influence his feelings, and in some instances have distinctly positive or negative effects on his well‐being. Although the findings clearly favour nature scenes vis‐a‐vis American urban views, the results should not be construed as an indictment on psychological grounds of urban landscapes in general. It is likely that the differences between the effects of the two landscape categories would have been less if the urban scenes had contained large amounts of nature elements, and perhaps if the forms and materials of the built structures were different. For planners, the results support the notion that the benefits of providing landscaping or nature‐like views in urban areas extend beyond aesthetics to include such psychological ‘payoffs’ as higher levels of positive affect. A related implication is that location and design decisions for some activities and institutions — such as high stress workplaces and hospitals — should assign considerable importance to providing ‘through the window’ contact with nature. Does a pre‐operative hospital patient experience less anxiety if his window overlooks a park rather than, say, a motorway or vegetationless parking lot? Do school children feel more anxious in windowless classrooms than in classrooms having window views of nature? Does an individual recuperate more quickly at home after a stressful workday if, for example, his apartment complex has been planned to allow visual contact with a forest or lake? The potential of visual landscapes to reduce or heighten anxiety, and to influence other aspects of emotional states, should be considered in attempts to achieve more holistic evaluations of planning effects. In this regard there will likely emerge a demand for landscape researchers to develop procedures for assessing the psychological, as well as aesthetic, ‘resources’ of visual landscapes.

This study has been intended as an exploratory first step, and many research questions remain. To what extent do the results apply to people of different ages, levels of education, culture, etc? Do the differences which characterise psychological response to nature and urban views vary seasonally? How do people respond to scenes containing water? Are nature views more therapeutic than urban scenes for individuals experiencing boredom and understimulation rather than anxiety and high arousal? Is a scene's aesthetic value related to its influence on emotional well‐being? What man‐made forms, textures, and materials evoke responses similar to those to nature elements? These and other unresolved questions underline the fact that the general issue of differential human response to nature and built elements is of central importance to landscape research and planning.     

Urban morphology and conservation in China

The absence of a sound theoretical foundation is a major problem in urban conservation planning. This paper suggests the basis for a solution that harnesses the concept of urban landscape units. The nature and application of this concept are discussed in relation to the problems faced by urban conservation in China, where the pressures for change to, and the removal of, the traditional urban fabric are greater than practically anywhere else in the world. Parts of two conservation areas in Guangzhou are examined. Comparisons are made between the conservation proposals of the City and those based on urban landscape units.     

城市中心区（老城区）的绿化建设——城市绿化建设中一个不容忽视的问题

城市绿化已日益受到人们的普遍重视，但城市绿化建设中地明显地表现出了绿地分布不合理的严重影响，城市中心区绿地严重不足已成为城市绿化建设中普遍存在的突出问题，文章对此进行了分析，并提出了增加城市中心区绿地的几点建议。     

基于景观特征评估划定国土尺度景观 规划管理的空间单元

景观规划管理的视角需要从最优美、最有价值区域的保护,转向对国土全域“自然系统与人类行为”关系的协调。景观链接了“自然”与“空间”,生态系统服务功能的保护与强化必须从景观单元的尺度进行更为整体的思考。“通过景观(单元)规划”探讨了景观为更广泛的空间规划提供综合框架的潜力,景观特征评估则提供了将复杂连续的景观划分为多尺度、实体、可识别的整体空间单元的系统方法。通过对景观概念的系统梳理与阐释,论述了景观保护方法的转变、景观单元的空间意义,以及景观特征评估作为多尺度景观单元划分的先进方法在英格兰的全面实践与应用。     

Applying the fuzzy set theory for medium and small scale landscape assessment

The goal of a sustainable land use and landscape development can only be reached by re-establishing regulation functions. That is why it is necessary to assess such a function besides others (production, carrier, information) to derive different potentials for various parts of landscape properties and to promote these potentials by introducing relevant measures. A first step in this direction is to assess profoundly how capable landscape units are. Regarding landscape units as areas of assessment they have to be constant for a long time, especially along their boundaries. As land use changes profoundly on a large scale, landscape units have to be separated on a regional scale. Thinking in geographic dimensions it is the chronological level we have to work on. Unfortunately, there are no assessment methods for landscape functions in this dimension. Due to the fact that all traditional assessment procedures are only valid for small areas it is necessary to look for methods that are of value for larger areas too. The use of fuzzy set methods and fuzzy logic seems to be promising. Traditional assessment methods are taken and combined with fuzzy set theory to get results for larger landscape units. Taking the function of ground water protection as an example the method is exemplarily described and applied on landscape units in the agglomeration area of Leipzig–Halle in the central part of Eastern Germany. Finally, a suggestion for the cartographic implementation is given.     

The feeling for landscape — a German example

A feeling for landscape was considered essential for the creation of a landscape close‐to‐nature in Germany during National Socialism. Examples of the connections between landscape, race and nation, (a race‐specific understanding of landscape) and the outstanding position German man was considered to have, are given. The far reaching and disastrous consequences of such connections and their integration into a political concept are briefly sketched.     

文化景观视角下的乡土聚落研究——以云南垭口村为例

乡土聚落是国土景观的空间单元,是国土景观多样性、独特性的载体,具有重要研究意义。以云南省元阳县垭口村为例,研究文化景观视角下的乡土聚落。依据文化景观的研究主线,从自然环境和民族文化2个方面研究垭口村人与自然相互作用的基础。在此基础上,研究垭口村哈尼族人以农业为主的人与自然相互作用的方式。最后,从乡土聚落景观格局和文化体系2个方面研究垭口村乡土聚落人文自然系统,作为人与自然相互作用结果的研究。对风景园林学科体系下的乡土聚落研究及实践具有重要的参考价值,对维持国土景观多样性和独特性、保护文化多样性等也具有借鉴意义。     

Towards Harmonisation in Landscape Unit Delineation: An Analysis of Spanish Case Studies

The European Landscape Convention has encouraged member states to develop tools for landscape planning and management. Landscape character assessment is the most widespread approach. The aim of this paper is to identify the main trends in landscape unit delineation in Spain. For this purpose, 29 works are analysed by the Multiple Correspondence technique (MCA). Each work is characterised by a category of the variables: scale, type of extent, geomorphology, land matrix and visual boundaries. Results show that there is an implicit hierarchy in the way Spanish professionals are mapping landscape units. It is more apparent in variables related to geomorphology and less evident in variables related to land matrix. Regarding visual boundaries, they are not usually used at small scales and are more frequent at intermediate and large scales. The definition of clear criteria that allow comparable classifications and the increased consideration of cultural and perceptual factors is encouraged for future landscape character classifications.     

Bumblebee communities as an indicator for landscape monitoring in the agri-environmental programme

The current article focuses on the possibilities of applying bumblebees as one of the biodiversity indicators in the monitoring and evaluation of the Estonian Agri-Environmental Programme (AEP) at landscape level. The need for agri-environmental indicators arises, at least partially, because the desired state of the environment sought by policy makers may not be directly observable. To develop agri-environmental measures favourable to landscape quality, it is necessary to know more about the relationship between landscape structure and composition and the number of different species. This study tested the relationship between the data sets of landscape elements and bumblebee communities from 11 agricultural areas in Estonia. The localities were divided into two groups: intensively used agricultural areas (IA) (the percentage of arable land was >65%) and less intensively used agricultural areas (LIA) (the percentage of arable land was <45%). The following elements of landscape structure were analysed: buffer zones narrower than 5 m and wider than 5 m, ecotones between cultivated land and broad-leaved forests, ecotones between cultivated land and mixed or coniferous forests, ditches and brooks, fallow land, mixed forests, coniferous forests, broad-leaved forests, bushes, wetlands, cultivated grasslands, pastures, legumes, arable land, semi-natural grasslands. Fifteen bumblebee species were recorded in LIA and 13 in IA. The most widely distributed and abundant species were Bombus lucorum, Bombus pascuorum and Bombus lapidarius. These species dominated in both types of agricultural area. Two species, Bombus jonellus and Bombus hypnorum were found only in LIA. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the landscape elements and the bumblebee species found. Results showed that there was a significant co-structure between the data sets of landscape elements and bumblebee communities. The most important landscape features that correlated with the distribution of the bumblebee species were the ecotone length between cultivated land and forests, and the size of the area covered with mixed forests and wetlands.     

杭州居住区秋冬季植物景观评价——基于层次分析法的研究体系

在居住区景观价值日益显现及公众对植物景观进一步重视的情况下,笔者实地考查了杭州15个居住区,使用AHP法建立了秋冬季植物景观评价模型。采用量化研究方法,从植物季节性景观质量、群落整体景观特色以及服务功能满足情况,对选定样地的秋冬季植物景观现状作出客观评价。本次景观评价兼顾科学性、系统性及可操作性,通过比较打分所确定的权重,反应出评价者对各评价因子的重视程度。结果显示,植物群落整体景观特色对住户影响程度最大。此外,针对样地秋冬季植物景观普遍存在缺乏季节性特色、使用功能性不足的状况,分析了其形成原因并加以讨论。     

先升后降：2000—2020年博尔塔拉河流域景观生态风险演变

博尔塔拉河流域是典型的干旱区内陆河流域,正面临着因气候变化、人为活动干扰所造成的生态环境恶化现象。景观生态风险评价是评估生态系统变化与城市建设发展相互作用的有效工具,对生态脆弱的西北干旱地区进行全面的景观生态风险评价以作为城市建设必不可少的依据。基于2000、2010、2020年3期土地利用数据和DEM高程数据,对博尔塔拉河流域进行流域划分,以子流域为景观生态风险评价单元,联用Arc GIS、Fragstats和Geo Da软件计算得到景观生态风险指数及其空间分布特征,构建景观生态风险指数评价模型,对博尔塔拉河流域进行景观生态风险综合评价。结果表明：2000—2010年,研究区内大面积草地、湿地、森林等类型的退化是造成景观生态风险恶化的直接原因,这和第一、二产业的快速发展、无序垦荒、过度放牧等人类活动干扰有极大的关系。2010—2020年,随着国家对生态治理的高度重视,多种防治手段并行,景观生态风险等级大幅度降低,整体景观生态风险指数值呈降低趋势。整个研究期间,生态环境局部改善与部分退化并存,博尔塔拉河流域的景观生态安全情况不容乐观。未来建议从改善产业结构、推动绿色经济体系发展入手,同...     

La Huerta de Murcia: landscape guidelines for a peri‐urban territory

Some of the results of the landscape planning study recently carried out for the Metropolitan Area of Murcia in south‐eastern Spain, specifically for the areas of the Vega Media del Segura and the Huerta de Murcia, are presented. From the perspective of landscape as heritage, understood as a quality of the entire territory, methodological criteria are contributed for the analysis of landscapes for spatial planning purposes, as well as the result of trends, values and problems affecting the landscapes of peri‐urban agriculture. Public participation is highlighted throughout, and proposals are made for the preservation and management of the landscape as a resource contributing to the sustainability of the metropolitan area.     

风景名胜区建设项目景观影响评价逻辑 及路径研究——以崂山风景名胜区薛家岛景区 为例

生态文明建设及自然保护地体系构建背景下,科学实效的景观影响评价成为风景名胜区建设项目管理的制度性工作。以科学、技术和应用3个层面建构风景名胜区建设项目景观影响评价的逻辑体系：首先,明确景观影响评价的理论基础、内涵及边界;其次,建立景观影响评价的技术流程,多约束条件下划定景观类型区与评价单元,识别景观特征,提取评价要素;第三,以景观格局指数的景观优势度排序判定景观扰动风险度;最后,综合提出敏感性、扰动性、价值性和美学性四方面的建设项目影响评价体系,并结合青岛崂山风景名胜区薛家岛景区某建设项目的景观影响评价来实现场景应用。     

Evaluating landscape changes using vegetation and land-use maps: an integrated approach

Over the past 60 years, European mountain landscapes have been affected by land abandonment coupled with urbanisation through tourist exploitation. The Bormio surroundings (southern-central Alps, Italy) are an exemplary case study for these phenomena. To evaluate their landscape changes of the last 50 years, a sequence of two vegetation maps (1959, 1975) and a land-use map (2009) were harmonised in terms of spatial scale and thematic contents. The cartographic units were reclassified as Landscape Elements (LE) on the basis of their dominant species. Change at landscape and LE level were analysed by a set of non-redundant metrics. The loss and fragmentation of meadows, as well as an increasing recovery of woodlands and a doubling of urbanised areas, characterised landscape changes.

Meadows and subalpine shrublands were highlighted as being the most threatened landscape elements. The advisability of landscape monitoring for the conservation of the endangered habitats is briefly discussed.     

(重新)塑造景观:中国的人类干预景观遗产

景观作为一个整体代表了地球表面的一部分,包括导致其典型形态的所有影响因子和相互关联性。换句话说,景观可以被视为一个生态系统。自然景观被人类干预(通常是农民和农业)到一定程度,即成为文化景观,生态系统演变为农业生态系统,人在这个生态系统中是主要的生态因子。我们今天所看到的文化景观,尤其在中国,是9 000年甚至更长的历史长河中,在自然和人类相互的影响之下逐步地改变、影响或适应特定的生态因子后形成的。由此产生的文化景观反映出人与自然在悠久历史中的相互关系。由于农业必须有定居点的存在,因此典型的文化景观包括土地利用系统以及村庄和建筑。更重要的是,一种长期稳定的文化景观是可持续土地利用的结果,代表了一种内在的审美价值。经由人类活动导致的自然景观向文化景观的转变不应被看作是对自然或自然景观的破坏,而应被理解为对景观的(重新)塑造。取决于是否适合农业发展,文化景观在21世纪面临的发展趋势包括集约化或彻底遗弃。风景园林的任务即在这两种极端情形之间找到平衡点,提出发展理念,同时考虑文化景观的历史的和美学的价值。     

Distribution and dynamics of birds in a rural sub-Mediterranean landscape

The richness and abundance of birds in a sub-Mediterranean rural landscape (north Italy, Massa Carrara Province) were investigated across two spatial scales (10 km × 10 km and 5 km × 5 km), two functional scales (land use mosaic and ecotope) and two temporal scales (annual and seasonal).Information on birds collected using the line transect method was compared with some landscape attributes (altitude, orientation, patch size, distance from cultivations).Distribution, abundance and seasonal turnover of birds were described efficiently by land use cover and ecotopes, but altitude, orientation, patch size and neighboring patch types were also important.Pure crop areas and crops mixed within woodlands and farming villages were the areas preferred by birds especially out of the breeding period, although woodlands supported more stable birds assemblages over the year. The multiscalar approach proposed was an efficient strategy to investigate these bird assemblages living in a patchy rural mosaic in which resources were made seasonally available by agricultural practices.The recent landscape change due to abandonment of agriculture in most of the sub-Mediterranean mountainous rural areas and the consequent woodland encroachment were expected to produce impoverishment of both diversity and abundance of resident and migratory birds.