《欧洲风景公约》及其实施导则解析：迈向综合整体的风景园林规划管理

《欧洲风景公约》是第一个将风景作为规范对象的国际公约,这标志着"风景"概念从科学知识转化为行为规范,并成为跨国治理的政策工具。欧洲风景公约作为"软法"的本质特征是其规定性与确定性,精确的概念和严密的逻辑是公约文件的基石。从法规文本解读的角度全面阐释了公约的风景定义及其重要意义;深入解析了公约的总体措施与行动框架,评述了风景知识与风景行动的相互关系;并对公约在国家层面实施的干预机制、具体的实施方法进行了详细的阐述与解释。     

Evaluating Landscape for Shared Values: Tools, Principles, and Methods

The aim of the paper is to discuss the need for innovation in the landscape policies that were proclaimed by the European Landscape Convention (ELC), which promotes a change from policies stressing conservation to policies stressing a management approach to planning new landscapes. This change focuses on the need to define a new methodological approach to evaluate and promote landscape values as well as to define a process leading to shared values in reference to landscape. This article begins its research with the recent implementation of the ELC in some European Countries. On this basis, it presents an alternative definition of landscape, discusses the role of landscape evaluation, and identifies the different types of values involved in landscape.     

Evaluating Landscape for Shared Values: Tools,Principles, and Methods

The aim of the paper is to discuss the need for innovation in the landscape policies that were proclaimed by the European Landscape Convention (ELC), which promotes a change from policies stressing conservation to policies stressing a management approach to planning new landscapes. This change focuses on the need to define a new methodological approach to evaluate and promote landscape values as well as to define a process leading to shared values in reference to landscape. This article begins its research with the recent implementation of the ELC in some European Countries. On this basis, it presents an alternative definition of landscape, discusses the role of landscape evaluation, and identifies the different types of values involved in landscape.     

The European Landscape Convention

Adopted in Florence (Italy) on 20 October 2000, the European Landscape Convention is aimed at promoting the protection, management and planning of European landscapes and organising European cooperation on landscape issues. It is the first international treaty to be exclusively concerned with all dimensions of European landscape. It applies to the entire territory of the Parties and relates to natural, urban and peri-urban areas, whether on land, water or sea. It therefore concerns not just remarkable landscapes but also ordinary everyday landscapes and blighted areas. The Convention represents an important contribution to the implementation of the objectives of the Council of Europe: these seek to protect Europeans' quality of life and well-being, taking into account landscape, cultural and natural values. The member states of the Council of Europe signatory to the European Landscape Convention declared their concern to achieve sustainable development based on a balanced and harmonious relationship between social needs, economic activity and the environment. The cultural dimension is also of fundamental importance.     

The European Landscape Convention

Adopted in Florence (Italy) on 20 October 2000, the European Landscape Convention is aimed at promoting the protection, management and planning of European landscapes and organising European cooperation on landscape issues. It is the first international treaty to be exclusively concerned with all dimensions of European landscape. It applies to the entire territory of the Parties and relates to natural, urban and peri-urban areas, whether on land, water or sea. It therefore concerns not just remarkable landscapes but also ordinary everyday landscapes and blighted areas. The Convention represents an important contribution to the implementation of the objectives of the Council of Europe: these seek to protect Europeans' quality of life and well-being, taking into account landscape, cultural and natural values. The member states of the Council of Europe signatory to the European Landscape Convention declared their concern to achieve sustainable development based on a balanced and harmonious relationship between social needs, economic activity and the environment. The cultural dimension is also of fundamental importance.     

《欧洲风景公约》:关于"文化景观"的一场思想革命

《欧洲风景公约》对欧洲的景观有了一个较之从前更为全面的理解。这个公约所包含的思想已开始反映在欧洲各国政府、环境机构以及欧洲大多数对景观感兴趣的相关团体的工作中。景观没有必要划分为"自然的"或"文化的"2类,因为欧洲所有的景观都已经或多或少地受到人类的影响。因而",文化景观"的术语显得过于累赘,所有欧洲景观都具有不同程度的文化性。然而,对景观进行分类仍然是个复杂的问题。不同的个人、组织和文化往往依据自身对自然长期的、不同程度的干预和联想发展出自身的价值。《欧洲风景公约》不期望一种景观价值凌驾于另一种之上,事实上《,欧洲风景公约》认识到,与那些通常被标识为具有全球重要性的景观一样,地方的和退化的景观对于社区或文化、社区居民或外来的造访者具有同样的重要性。这个公约在全欧洲的政府中将"普通"景观与"特殊"景观同等对待,这是具有革命性的创举。     

The Landscape Inventory of Galicia (NW Spain): GIS-web and public participation for landscape planning

The European Landscape Convention recognises the importance of public participation for landscape planning in order to capture local knowledge, sensitive issues and conflicts, boost exchanges of information and democratise the process. However, traditional public participation methods are frequently restricted to public exposure at the final stage of the planning process. New public participation movements call for a greater role for the people at all stages. The growing development of ICT and geospatial information technologies provides new means of improving the participation process. This paper describes the public participation procedure and the participation geographic information system used to develop the Landscape Inventory of Galicia, whose results were used for the characterisation of landscape types, the delimitation of special interest areas from the locations identified by citizens and the definition of special attention areas from the degraded areas located by population.     

A relational approach to the implementation of the European Landscape Convention in Sweden

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) aims to promote landscape protection, management and planning and to organise European cooperation on landscape issues. The introduction of the ELC in 2000 created a need for further theoretical work within the field of landscape research, which has historically provided a weak theoretical basis for policy implementation. In this study, a relational approach was used to investigate the ongoing ELC implementation process in Sweden, illustrating government dynamics and highlighting efforts to transform discourses and practices. The conceptual framework used comprised three analytical components (policy community, policy meaning and strategy-making practice) and the relational approach was applied at national, regional and local policy levels. The results revealed both progress and obstacles to ELC implementation in Sweden and confirmed the usefulness of the relational approach.     

Exploring the national contexts and cultural ideas that preceded the Landscape Character Assessment method in England

Abstract

Countries ratifying the European Landscape Convention (ELC) agree to identify their landscapes, analyse their characteristics and assess the landscapes taking into account the values afforded them by the population. Some UK countries, such as England, are regarded as pioneers of these ideas and implementation of ELC principles even before it was drafted. Since the early 1990s, England (and Scotland) has been ahead of many countries in the development of methods for characterisation and identification of landscapes. However, such landscape assessment methods have been developed within a specific and distinctive historical context. This paper attempts to define the subtext of English landscape identity that may be ‘lost in translation’ or ignored when these methods are exported to other countries. The paper first outlines three major, interlinked aspects of ideas and societal development that have specifically affected development of landscape conservation and planning and landscape assessment methods in England, namely: (i) ideas from landscape conservation; (ii) countryside protection and planning in the early twentieth century; and (iii) institutionalisation and development of post-war planning and conservation practices. The paper also examines Landscape Character Assessment and discusses ways in which the national context may need to be considered when using this method.     

Towards Harmonisation in Landscape Unit Delineation: An Analysis of Spanish Case Studies

The European Landscape Convention has encouraged member states to develop tools for landscape planning and management. Landscape character assessment is the most widespread approach. The aim of this paper is to identify the main trends in landscape unit delineation in Spain. For this purpose, 29 works are analysed by the Multiple Correspondence technique (MCA). Each work is characterised by a category of the variables: scale, type of extent, geomorphology, land matrix and visual boundaries. Results show that there is an implicit hierarchy in the way Spanish professionals are mapping landscape units. It is more apparent in variables related to geomorphology and less evident in variables related to land matrix. Regarding visual boundaries, they are not usually used at small scales and are more frequent at intermediate and large scales. The definition of clear criteria that allow comparable classifications and the increased consideration of cultural and perceptual factors is encouraged for future landscape character classifications.     

New challenges in the field of spatial planning: landscapes

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) highlights the landscape as an holistic concept, which is important for individual and social well being and for quality of life. Landscape questions tend today to fall between the responsibilities of different sectors of society. The implications of the Convention for giving 'landscape' a higher status in spatial planning are discussed. Important challenges for planning that need to be focused from a landscape approach are discussed: the growing urbanization; the development and new roles of the urban fringe areas; new infrastructure landscapes; the mental landscapes of tomorrow; an holistic approach to landscape ecological planning and environmental policies and the need for co-ordination of European planning issues that concern landscapes. Planning for good landscape qualities is not a new issue; many landscape architects and landscape planners have worked in the spirit of the ELC for decades. The importance of educating landscape architects and planners with an holistic approach is particularly addressed. Efforts for a more integrated landscape education, such as the European network LE:NOTRE, already exist and contribute to the implementation of the ELC.     

New challenges in the field of spatial planning: landscapes

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) highlights the landscape as an holistic concept, which is important for individual and social well being and for quality of life. Landscape questions tend today to fall between the responsibilities of different sectors of society. The implications of the Convention for giving ‘landscape’ a higher status in spatial planning are discussed. Important challenges for planning that need to be focused from a landscape approach are discussed: the growing urbanization; the development and new roles of the urban fringe areas; new infrastructure landscapes; the mental landscapes of tomorrow; an holistic approach to landscape ecological planning and environmental policies and the need for co‐ordination of European planning issues that concern landscapes. Planning for good landscape qualities is not a new issue; many landscape architects and landscape planners have worked in the spirit of the ELC for decades. The importance of educating landscape architects and planners with an holistic approach is particularly addressed. Efforts for a more integrated landscape education, such as the European network LE:NOTRE, already exist and contribute to the implementation of the ELC.     

融合景观连通性的城镇规划与生物多样性生态服务效能优化

随着世界范围内濒危物种灭绝速率的日益增长,生物多样性已成为生态系统服务中最重要的组成部分之一。无论地区、区域还是全球尺度范畴,生物多样性的保护都是保持生态系统活力的关键。景观连通性包含两层含义,既是对景观自然结构的描述,也包含特定物种对该结构的响应,它为景观连通性原理应用于景观规划实践提供了理论基础,尤其是对那些通过生态系统服务的整合来改善环境影响的项目,这种理论基础的作用更为突出。基于美国东南部生态城镇开发项目的案例分析,本文试图探索出能够促进景观连通性并推进生物多样性保护的设计思路。基于地理信息系统(GIS)与空间数据分析(FRAGSTATS),本研究旨在量化美国东南部以林地和林带为特色的景观连通性。在美国东南部,由于房地产业持续扩张、新增住宅不断开发,大量拥有自然景观的区域正经历着城镇化进程。研究结果表明,通过增加栖息地斑块面积以及它们之间的连通性,在基地内已建绿色基础设施中增植新的林带可显著增加景观连通性,从而有效地提供生态系统服务。结论部分,本研究聚焦在如何通过更高的景观连通性来实现新城发展需求与生态系统服务供给两者间的平衡,也因此提出了设计干预需将宜居性与可持续性并重的观点。     

城市景观及城市景观生态研究的重点

提出城市景观具有人类主导性、生态脆弱性和景观破碎性3大特点,城市景观的斑块、廊道和本底等结构成分和组成要素,具有显著特点.城市景观中的物质流、能量流、人口流和信息流等,是维持城市景观结构的主要功能流.可以从景观整体、景观结构成分和景观格局、景观功能等多个方面,应用景观生态学原理和方法,开展城市景观生态研究.城市景观异质性,在维持城市结构和功能的可持续性方面,发挥着重要作用,在城市景观生态研究和规划实践中,都应将维护和提高城市景观异质性作为焦点问题之一,给予充分重视.     

Spatial planning for landscape: mapping the pitfalls

While welcoming the European Landscape Convention and acknowledging the successes of conservation organizations such as the National Trust in Britain, the Czech Village Restoration Scheme and the French eco‐musées, this paper identifies some of the pitfalls that must be avoided if the fine words of the Convention are to be translated into effective action. These include problems with designation, conflicts between different types of conservation, and the side effects of gentrification and increased tourism. There is a call for more research to break down barriers to understanding between countries, between disciplines, and between academics and practitioners.     

Dynamics of integrating landscape values in landscape character assessment: the hidden dominance of the objective outsider

Abstract

While there has been extensive research undertaken on the values which insiders attribute to landscape there is a lack of literature which looks at how planning professionals handle landscape values. In this article, I develop a framework for questioning how landscape values are taken up in landscape planning, with the aim of conceptualising what landscape values mean in practice. This is undertaken through addressing landscape assessment, more specifically analysing how landscape character assessment (LCA) represents a critical point in the framing of landscape values. Through a synthesis of research on landscape values I examine the underlying logic of the LCA documents. I conclude that the values communicated in these assessments tend to be those of ‘objective’ outside experts, predominantly based on aesthetics and focusing on the physicality of landscape. This I argue leads to a questioning the legitimacy of the LCA approach.     

Reading and assessing the landscape as cultural and historical heritage

Drawing upon research undertaken for the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities by a team at the University of Milan, an emerging and converging conception of landscape which is shared by many nations in Europe is identified. It is characterized by the integration of culture, by a shift of emphasis from places of excellence to consideration of the whole territory, by the wish to conserve cultural identity and by a concern for the quality of life of whole populations. In addition to regarding the landscape as an artefact, it can also be regarded as a document, an archive or a palimpsest. Shortcomings in the way that landscapes are currently read are identified, and the range of criteria employed to assess the values of particular landscapes are considered. Finally, there is a plea for a serious exchange of information regarding methodology and operational expertise, in the light of the European Landscape Convention.     

Reading and assessing the landscape as cultural and historical heritage

Drawing upon research undertaken for the Italian Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities by a team at the University of Milan, an emerging and converging conception of landscape which is shared by many nations in Europe is identified. It is characterized by the integration of culture, by a shift of emphasis from places of excellence to consideration of the whole territory, by the wish to conserve cultural identity and by a concern for the quality of life of whole populations. In addition to regarding the landscape as an artefact, it can also be regarded as a document, an archive or a palimpsest. Shortcomings in the way that landscapes are currently read are identified, and the range of criteria employed to assess the values of particular landscapes are considered. Finally, there is a plea for a serious exchange of information regarding methodology and operational expertise, in the light of the European Landscape Convention.     

文化景观视角下的历史性城市景观

历史性城市景观是遗产保护领域近十几年来提出的新概念,关于其学术意义的讨论也层出不穷。从文化景观所蕴含的时空过程的学术视角着眼,分别梳理了文化景观的学术脉络与遗产领域中的文化景观和历史性城市景观的实践发展历程,指出历史性城市景观并没有超出文化景观的学术范畴,而遗产领域当前面临的很多问题都与对文化景观学术内涵的认知缺陷有关。只有充分借鉴和吸收文化景观的学术成果,才能真正有效地应对世界遗产实践过程中复杂变化的人地关系等挑战。     

The “Landscape must become the law”—or should it?

The idea that society ought to be governed by the “law of landscape” must be seen in the context of the process by which the idea of landscape merged with that of nature in the course of the Renaissance and Enlightenment. In order to comprehend how these ideas morphed into the idea that “nature must become the law” as propounded by IFLA this history is traced. Through the linkages of “natural” social ideals with what was seen to be a “natural” style of landscape gardening, reforms sought to promote what often was seen to be a more just and economically, socially and physically sustainable form of society. This was an inherently conservative approach. It is shown how the ideas of landscape that developed from the Enlightenment to the period of land embellishment took a diabolical turn during the era of National Socialism in Germany. The idea of rooted-in-the-soil native plants as the ideal constituent of a German “landscape” continued among landscape architects and landscape planners after the liberation from National Socialism. Though somewhat diluted in the course of the second half of the twentieth century it re-emerged in a kind of renaissance in late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries under the terms “ecological planning” and the “nature garden”. Another source of these ideas lies particularly with the thinking of “anthroposophists”. The passage of a current legal landscape document, The European Landscape Convention, the heritage of the idea that “landscape must become the law” has gained new pertinence.