Utilization of germinated ancient wheat (Emmer and Einkorn) flours to improve functional and nutritional properties of bread

Germinated and untreated ancient (Einkorn and Emmer) and modern (Esperia) wheat flours (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20%) were used in bread dough to improve functional and nutritional properties of bread according to (3 × 2 × 5) x 2 factorial design. Utilization of wheat varieties in the germinated form increased the ash, total dietary fiber (TDF), total yellow pigment (TYP), total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activities, Ca, Fe and Mg content of bread, and also the most increments in those values (except TYP) were observed in Emmer flour usage. Germinated wheat flour decreased the mean phytic acid contents of bread samples from 313.32 mg/100 g to 291.81 mg/100 g compared to untreated wheat flour. The use of ancient wheat flour (einkorn and emmer) gave lower bread volume compared to modern bread wheat flour. The use of germinated wheat flour decreased the crust and crumb L* values of the breads but increased the a* and b* values. As a result, increasing ratios of germinated ancient wheat flour increased the functional component and nutritional value of the bread, and at the same time, its usage at low ratio contributed positively to the technological quality of the bread.     

Effects of wheat sourdough process on the quality of mixed oat-wheat bread

The aim of this work was to study the effects of sourdough fermentation of wheat flour with Lactobacillus plantarum, on the quality attributes of mixed oat-wheat bread (51 g whole grain oat flour and 49 g/100 g white wheat flour). Emphasis was laid both on β-glucan stability as well as bread structure and sensory quality. The variables of the sourdough process were: dough yield (DY), fermentation time, fermentation temperature, and amount of sourdough added to the bread dough. The sourdough process was shown to be a feasible method for mixed oat-wheat bread, and, when optimized, provided bread quality equal to straight dough baking. A small amount (10g/100 g dough) of slack sourdough fermented at high temperature for a long time resulted in the most optimal sourdough bread with the highest specific volume (3.5 cm³/g), the lowest firmness after 3 days storage (0.31 kg), and low sensory sourness with high intensity of the crumb flavour. Wheat sourdough parameters did not affect the content of oat β-glucan in the bread. Additionally, both straight dough and sourdough bread contained 1.4-1.6 g β-glucan/100 g fresh bread. The average molecular weight of β-glucan was 5.5 × 10⁵ in both types of bread, while that of oat flour was 10 × 10⁵. This indicates that a slight degradation of β-glucan occurred during proofing and baking, and it was not affected by variation in the acidity of the bread between pH 4.9-5.8.     

Effect of addition of protein concentrates from natural and yeast fermented rice bran on the rheological and technological properties of wheat bread

The effect of substituting wheat flour with 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% protein concentrates from natural and yeast fermented rice bran on the rheological properties of their dough and bread properties was studied. Rheological properties of wheat dough were influenced by addition of rice bran protein concentrates. Overall acceptability score and specific loaf volume of 100% wheat bread were not significantly different from composite bread up to 10% rice bran protein substitution, and therefore, the optimised level of substitution was established. The optimised composite bread contained higher total amino acid content, radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing ability power (43.04–48.87 g/100 g, 182.77–201.65   mmol TEAC/100 g and 613.29–637.81 mmol TE/100 g) than control (33.86 g/100 g, 109.43 mmol TEAC/100 g and 540.13 mmol TE/100 g). Springiness, cohesiveness and resilience values of wheat bread were not significantly different from composite bread. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that composite bread had surfaces with embedded granules like protein deposits with small spores.     

Physical,Sensory and Microbiological Properties of Wheat-Fermented Unripe Plantain Flour

The physical, sensory and microbiological properties of wheat-fermented unripe plantain composite flour bread were studied. Mature unripe plantain was peeled, sliced, steam blanched, dried and milled into flour. The flour was made into a slurry (10 g of flour/3 ml of water) and allowed to ferment for 24 h. It was then dried, pounded and sieved through 0.25 mm sieve. The fermented unripe plantain flour was then blended with wheat flour in the ratios of (wheat:fermented unripe plantain) 100:0; 90:10; 80:20; 70:30; and 60:40. Bread was produced from the flour blends using the straight dough method. Loaf weight and volume decreased significantly (p < 0.05) with increasing levels of plantain flour inclusion. Sensory evaluation of the flour samples revealed significant differences in the ratings for crumb colour and texture between 100% wheat flour (100:0) and 60% wheat-40% fermented unripe plantain flour (60:40) bread but no significant difference was observed between all bread samples with respect to crust colour, taste, aroma and overall acceptability. The sensory scores showed that all the bread samples were acceptable. Microbiological analysis (total viable count) revealed that all the bread samples were free of microorganisms for up to four days after production.     

X-ray micro-computed tomography evaluation of bubble structure of freeze-dried dough and foam properties of bread produced from roasted wheat flour

This study evaluated the bubble structure of freeze-dried dough and foam properties of bread produced from the roasted wheat flour by means of X-ray micro-computed tomography (μCT). Wheat was roasted at 90 °C and 86 Hz, of which the conditions was determined by means of a central composite design, and the flour used to produce dough proofed for 20- and 40 min as well as bread. The use of 10 g dough and bread samples enabled scanning at a much higher resolution. Roasting resulted in a decreased strut thickness of the bread, suggesting a finer crumb structure and softer texture, compared to the control. Porosity increases were observed for the roasted wheat samples. This suggested a slightly weaker gluten strength as was observed with the lower mixograph peak height. Roasting wheat, at the conditions determined by the central composite design, did not negatively affect the foam properties of the breads produced from the roasted wheat flour.     

Bread fortified with dietary fibre extracted from culinary banana bract: its quality attributes and in vitro starch digestibility

The effect of fortification of dietary fibre (DF) on dough rheology, quality characteristics and in vitro starch digestibility of bread was studied. Bread was prepared incorporating DF (2–4 g per 100 g of flour mixture). Rheological study of dough showed an increase in dough stiffness and elasticity with higher incorporation of the DF. The results of chemical composition revealed that addition of DF increased total DF (19.65 g per 100 g) content of bread. However, incorporation of 2 g per 100 g DF of flour mixture with 66 g per 100 g moisture showed higher water retention and specific volume of 86.76% and 5.83 cm³ g⁻¹, respectively, which was close to control bread. Improved textural property with acceptable sensory attributes was observed for bread fortified with 2 g per 100 g DF of flour mixture and 66 g per 100 g moisture content. Incorporation of DF (2–4 g per 100 g of flour mixture) showed a decrease in rapidly digestible starch (RDS) and an increase in slowly digestible starch (SDS) content with lower predicted glycaemic index (pGI) than control bread.     

Utilization of germinated and heat-moisture treated brown rices in sugar-snap cookies

Utilization of germinated brown rice (GBR) in sugar-snap cookies and effect of heat-moisture treatment of the GBR were investigated. Brown rice was germinated at 30 °C for 48 h and then a heat-moisture treatment was conducted for the moistened GBR (17 g/100 g moisture content) at 100 °C for 4 h. Sugar-snap cookies were prepared with white rice, brown rice, GBR and the treated GBR flours, as substitutes for wheat flour (30–100 g/100 g). All cookies containing rice flours, regardless of germination and heat-moisture treatment, required significantly less force to compress than did the wheat flour cookie, and this softening effect was increased as the level of rice flour substitution increased. The cookies made with the GBR flour displayed inferior physical characteristics compared to those with wheat flour, but the cookies containing the treated GBR flour showed improved physical properties with lower moisture content and higher spread factor than those containing untreated GBR flour. The cookies containing the treated GBR flours showed relatively a low degree of firming during the ambient storage. The overall results showed that the cookies with acceptable quality and improved nutrition could be prepared by partial or complete replacement of wheat flour with the heat-moisture treated GBR flour.     

Dough properties and baking characteristics of white bread,as affected by addition of raw,germinated and toasted pea flour

Thermal and non-thermal processing may alter the structure and improve the techno-functional properties of pulses and pulse flours, increasing their range of applications in protein-enhanced foods. The effects of germination and toasting of yellow peas (Pisum sativum) on flour and dough characteristics were investigated. Wheat flour was substituted with raw, germinated and toasted pea flour (30%). The resulting bread-baking properties were assessed. Toasting increased dough water absorption and improved dough stability compared with germinated and raw pea flour (p < 0.05). This resulted in bread loaves with comparable specific volume and loaf density to that of a wheat flour control. Significant correlations between dough rheological properties and loaf characteristics were observed. Addition of pea flours increased the protein content of the breads from 8.4% in the control white bread, to 10.1–10.8% (p < 0.001). Toasting demonstrated the potential to improve the techno-functional properties of pea flour. Results highlight the potential application of pea flour in bread-making to increase the protein content.     

Effect of butter content and baking condition on characteristics of the gluten‐free dough and bread

This study aimed to investigate effect of butter content (0–30 g/100 g flour) and baking conditions hot air baking (HA), microwave baking (MW) and hot air‐microwave baking (HA‐MW) on quality of the rice flour dough and bread. The increased butter (up to 15 g butter/100 g flour) enhanced elastic modulus (G′) and viscous modulus (G″) of dough and specific volume of bread. Additionally, the increased butter improved crust colour and reduced hardness of the bread. The HA‐MW and MW conditions were useful for the gluten‐free bread by reducing baking time and predicted glycemic index (GI), regardless of butter content. However, enthalpy of retrogradation and crystallinity in the HA‐MW and MW bread stored at 4 °C for 7 days were increased and higher than those of the HA bread, indicating a faster staling. The predicted GI of both MW and HA‐MW bread remained at a medium level during storage.     

Effect of buckwheat flour addition to wheat flour on acylglycerols and fatty acids composition and rheology properties

In this paper, the rheological properties and lipids composition with an emphasis on acylglycerols and fatty acids composition of dough with various portions of buckwheat flour (BWF) are investigated. The results show lipids from wheat-buckwheat flour mixture has higher ratio of total unsaturated to saturated fatty acids content (3.77-4.78 g/100 g) than those of wheat flour only (3.71 g/100 g). The value of dough water absorption (WA), development time (DT), dough stability (DSt), gelatinization temperature (T_max) and maximal pasta viscosity (η_max) increases when content of free fatty (FFA) acids increases, i.e. when buckwheat flour portion in flour mixtures increases, so FFA content has a proper influence on these dough properties. Dough with buckwheat flour has higher WA (54.3-56.0 ml/100 g), T_max (82.0-84.1 °C) and η_max (630-860 AU), longer Dst (0.7-4.6 min) and lower Dsf (82-90 FU) than dough with wheat flour only, whose appropriate values are 54.3 ml/100 g, 81.2 °C, 480 AU, 0.3 min and 90 FU, respectively. So, the flour mixture with buckwheat flour of at least 5 g/100 g can be considered good quality flour.     

小麦粉吸水速率对面团特性及馒头品质的影响

该文以不同吸水速率的小麦粉为基础,研究在相同的揉混条件下,其面团特性及馒头品质的变化。使用粉质仪将面团稠度达到最高时所用的加水量与消耗的时间的比值定义为吸水速率,测定不同吸水速率小麦粉其粉质特性、湿面筋含量、面筋指数、游离巯基与二硫键含量、面团质构特性、馒头比容与高径比、馒头的质构特性。研究结果表明,当小麦粉吸水速率从0.17 g/s增大到3.87 g/s时,面团的稳定时间及粉质质量指数显著下降。其湿面筋含量从38.81%下降到19.19%,二硫键含量从13.31μmol/g下降到9.05μmol/g。面团的质构特性在发酵0 min时呈先升高后降低趋势、在醒发45 min后整体呈下降趋势。馒头的比容从2.67 mL/g降低到2.27 mL/g、高径比从0.68降低到0.56,其硬度、胶着性、咀嚼性均成下降趋势。整体而言,吸水速率低的小麦粉其面团相对较硬且馒头较为筋道有嚼劲;吸水速率较高的小麦粉其面团硬度稍弱且馒头较为松软。     

Effect of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose,whey protein concentrate and soy protein isolate enrichment on characteristics of gluten‐free rice dough and bread

Due to a lack of gluten, rice dough needed some additives to improve its properties. This study aimed to investigate effect of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), whey protein concentrate (WPC) and soy protein isolate (SPI) on rice dough and bread. HPMC increased water absorption of the rice dough (P ≤ 0.05). Adding SPI (2–4 g per 100 g flour) together with HPMC tended to increase stability time and reduce tolerance index. During fermentation, HPMC increased maximum dough height, while SPI increased final dough height (P ≤ 0.05). All addition improved tan δ (G″/G′) to be comparable to the wheat dough, but it could not improve gas production and retention. Therefore, specific volume, springiness, cohesiveness and chewiness of rice bread were lower than those of wheat bread (P ≤ 0.05). Percentage of small pores in rice bread was reduced to be comparable to wheat bread, by adding WPC. All addition could improve porosity of the rice bread.     

A comparison of the ability of several small and large deformation rheological measurements of wheat dough to predict baking behaviour

The rheological characteristics of twenty wheat flour samples obtained from four organic flour blends and a non-organic control were compared in relation to their ability to predict subsequent loaf volume in the baked bread. The flour samples considered had protein contents that varied between 11–14 g/100 g. Four different rheological methods were employed. Oscillatory stress rheometry on the protein gel extracted from the wheat flour, oscillatory stress rheometry and creep measurement on undeveloped dough samples and biaxial extensional measurements on simple flour–water doughs. None of the fundamental rheological parameters correlated with loaf volume. There was a correlation between the storage modulus of the gel protein and storage modulus for the undeveloped dough (r = 0.85). There was a weak negative correlation between protein content and biaxial extensional viscosity (r = −0.62). Stepwise multiple regression related loaf volume to dough stability time (measured on the Farinograph) and tan (phase angle) for the undeveloped dough samples (overall model r² = 0.54). The results indicate that the four rheological tests considered could not be used as predictors of subsequent loaf volume when the bread is baked.     

Dough properties and breadmaking qualities of whole waxy wheat flour and effects of additional enzymes

BACKGROUND: Waxy wheat, a new kind of genetically back‐crossed wheat, was applied to make whole bread in this study. Dough properties and bread quality of the whole waxy wheat flour, which was milled from 100% whole grains containing bran and germ, were determined. RESULTS: Whole waxy wheat had lower protein and lipid contents but higher dietary fiber content than whole regular wheat flour. Pasting temperature and viscosity of the whole waxy wheat flour were significantly lower than those of the whole regular wheat. However, the white wheat flour milled from wheat grains with 48% recovery had significantly higher peak viscosity than the whole waxy wheat. Bread made from the whole waxy wheat flour was significantly softer than that from the whole regular wheat flour during storage. However, bread made from whole waxy wheat had significantly lower specific volume than that from the white waxy flour because of the high amount of dietary fiber. Addition of cellulase increased paste viscosity, lowered dough mixing properties and reduced the firmness of the bread. The addition of pentosanase also increased paste viscosity, lowered dough mixing properties, improved loaf volume of bread but increased the firmness of breadcrumbs, while the addition of α‐amylase only increased final viscosity of flour and did not affect dough properties and bread qualities of whole waxy wheat flour. CONCLUSION: As a result, waxy wheat shows superior properties for making whole breads. Additional enzymes are also necessary to improve bread quality and nutritive values of whole waxy bread. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Folate fortification of white and whole-grain bread by adding Swiss chard and spinach. Acceptability by consumers

The aim of this work was to study the effect of bread-making on the content of endogenous folate of white and whole-grain bread fortified with either Swiss chard or spinach at 20 g/100 g and 40 g/100 g measured by HPLC (H4-folate and 5-CH3-H4-folate); and to assess the sensory acceptability of folate-fortified breads compared to non-fortified breads. The fortification of breads with 20 g/100 g and 40 g/100 g vegetables significantly (p < 0.001) increased the total folate content (from 19.9 to 57.9 μg/100 g in white bread and from 37.4 to 75.5 μg/100 g in whole-grain bread). Moreover, 40 g/100 g Swiss chard- and spinach-fortified breads obtained higher scores in overall acceptability than 20 g/100 g fortified or control bread for both white and whole-grain breads. The consumption of two servings (56 g each) per day of 40 g/100 g fortified bread would meet the daily folate requirements by 14.3–21.8% in adults and 9.6–14.5% in some special states like women of child-bearing age.     

Enzymatic Reduction of Phytate in Whole Wheat Breads

The presence of phytate in flour may be responsible for reduced bioavailability of iron, magnesium, zinc, and calcium from bread. The effect of various concentrations of commercial phytase or phosphatase added to whole wheat flour-yeast doughs on their phytate and nonphytate phosphorus content has been investigated. By using 2.0% (flour basis) of phytase and 0.11% phosphatase the initial phytate phosphorus concentration of the dough was reduced to 1/8 and 1/12 of its initial values, respectively. Storage of the whole wheat breads for up to 96 hr at room temperature showed further significant reduction of phytate phosphorus. The phytate phosphorus content of yeast leavened whole wheat breads decreased during 2 hours of dough fermentation, baking and the subsequent 48 hours of storage at room temperature from 24 mg/100g dough (dry matter) to 1.7 mg/100g bread (dry matter); the phytate phosphorus continued to decrease and after 96 hours storage it was 0.6 mg/100g bread.     

Compositional and varietal influence of finger millet flour on rheological properties of dough and quality of biscuit

Biscuits prepared from flour composites containing 60:40 and 70:30 (w/w) finger millet:wheat flour were evaluated for its dough characteristics and biscuit quality. Hardness of biscuit dough measured by textural profile analysis was more in 60:40 combination than in 70:30 level. The dough became more adhesive with higher level of wheat flour and it varied across varieties. Extensograph data also showed that resistance of biscuit dough increased with the increasing levels of wheat flour. However, very little difference was observed between addition of 30 and 40 g/100 g wheat flour in terms of resistance to extension. Wheat composite flour (40 g/100 g) had higher water absorption capacity than in 30 g/100 g composite flour. Bandwidth of composite flour was narrower in 40 g/100 g wheat flour composite. Expansion of biscuit and breaking strength after baking was more in 70:30 composite than in 60:40. Among the varieties used, VL-324 brought about the positive changes of composite flour in rheological characteristics in terms of adhesiveness, extensibility and resistance to extension, which in turn improves biscuit quality. It provided better physical quality biscuit dough and biscuit in terms of its spread ratio, density and breaking strength. Studies indicated that composite of finger millet and wheat flour (60:40) was found better, particularly in case of biscuit quality. Out of six varieties, VL-324 was found best in terms of biscuit quality as well as acceptability.     

Effect of Flour Extraction Rate and Baking on Thiamine and Riboflavin Content and Antioxidant Capacity of Traditional Rye Bread

ABSTRACT:  The effect of rye flour extraction rates and baking on thiamine and riboflavin content, and antioxidant capacity of traditional rye bread were studied and compared with white wheat flour. The content of thiamine was higher (10.9%) in rye dough formulated with dark rye flour (F-100%; extraction rate of 100%) than in rye dough formulated with brown rye flour (F-92%; extraction rate of 92%) that was similar to dough made with wheat flour. The riboflavin content in rye dough made from flour F-100% was also higher (16%) than in dough formulated with flour F-92%, and both provided larger riboflavin content than wheat dough. Baking led to reductions in thiamine of 56% for wheat bread and of 20% for both rye breads; however, this process caused only a 10% decrease in riboflavin for wheat bread and a 30% decrease for rye breads. Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity, peroxyl radical scavenging capacity, DPPH radical scavenging activity, and Folin–Ciocalteu reducing capacity were higher in rye than in wheat dough and bread. Baking process produced slight changes in antioxidant activity, except for Superoxide Dismutase-like activity where a sharp decrease was observed. Our findings showed that rye breads are an important source of B vitamins and rye breads formulated with dark and brown flours showed better antioxidant properties than wheat bread. Therefore, rye breads should be more widely recommended in human nutrition.     

Effect of whole amaranth flour on bread properties and nutritive value

This study investigated the effect of replacing wheat flour by whole Amaranthus cruentus flour (up to 40 g/100 g) to evaluate its potential utility as a nutritious breadmaking ingredient. The incorporation of amaranth flour significantly increased protein, lipid, ash, dietary fibre and mineral contents. Breads with amaranth have significantly higher amounts of phytates and lower myo-inositol phosphates, which could predict low mineral bioavailability at high levels of substitution (30–40 g/100 g). An increase in crumb hardness and elasticity was observed, and tristimulus colour values were significantly affected when the amaranth concentration was raised. Mineral contents, both micro- and macroelements, were increased significantly by the wheat flour substitution. Whole amaranth flour could be used as a partial replacement for wheat flour in bread formulations, increasing the product’s nutritional value and raising dietary fibre, mineral and protein levels, with a significant slight depreciation in bread quality when used in proportions between 10 and 20 g/100 g. Thus, the inclusion of amaranth flour could be limited to a maximum proportion of 20 g/100 g, thereby maintaining both product quality as well as the nutritional benefit of this ingredient.     

Effect of defatted maize germ flour addition on the physical and sensory quality of wheat bread

Maize (Zea mays L.) processing produces large quantities of defatted maize germ (DMG) that is being used mainly for animal feed. The objective of this study was to exploit use of this nutrient-rich by-product in bread by replacing wheat flour at 5-20 g/100 g levels. Breads prepared with wheat-DMG flour blends were analyzed for loaf volume, density, instrumental dough hardness and bread firmness, Hunter color (“L”, “a”, “b”, chroma, and hue angle), and selected sensory attributes. Loaf volumes decreased significantly, from 318.8 ml to 216.3 ml, as the DMG flour supplementation was increased from 0 to 20 g/100 g; a similar effect was observed for bread specific volume. Increase in dough hardness (7.56-71.32 N) was directly related to increase in DMG flour levels. Instrumental firmness values were significantly higher for breads containing DMG flours, 61.58 N in 20 g/100 g DMG bread versus 32.84 N for the control bread, made with wheat flour only. The control bread was lighter in color, as shown by higher “L” values, than those having DMG flour, with chroma and hue angle values significantly higher in treatment breads. In general, no differences were observed for the sensory attributes of crumb color, cells uniformity, aroma, firmness, mouthfeel, and off-flavor in breads with up to 15 g/100 g DMG flour, while the overall acceptability scores showed a mixed pattern. The results of this study demonstrated that acceptable quality bread could be made with DMG flour addition at ≤15 g/100 g.