Hydrogeological and isotopic survey of geothermal fields in the Buyuk Menderes graben, Turkey

The main high and low enthalpy geothermal fields in the Buyuk Menderes graben (Western Anatolia) and their reservoir temperatures are as follows: Kizildere (242 °C), Germencik (232 °C), Aydin-Ilicabasi (101 °C), Yılmazkoy (142 °C), Salavatli (171 °C), Soke (26 °C), Denizli -Pamukkale (36 °C), Karahayit (59 °C), Golemezli (101 °C) and Yenice (70 °C). The geothermal systems are controlled by active graben faults. The reservoir rocks in the geothermal fields are the limestone and conglomerate units within Neogene sediments and the marble-quartzite units within Paleozoic metamorphic formations. There are clear δ¹⁸O shifts from the Mediterranean Meteoric Water Line (MMWL) in the Kizildere, Germencik and Aydin fields, where a good relation between high temperatures and δ¹⁸O shift has also been observed, indicating deep circulation and water rock interactions. In the Pamukkale, Karahayit, Golemezli and Yenice fields and in Soke region, low temperatures, small isotope shifts, shallow circulations and mixing with shallow cold water have been noted.     

Low enthalpy geothermal energy utilisation schemes for greenhouse and district heating at Traianoupolis Evros, Greece

A socio-economic study has been made of the possible use of low enthalpy geothermal resources for district and greenhouse heating in the Traianoupolis Evros region. The thermal energy potential of the Aristino-Traianoupolis geothermal field has been estimated at 10.8 MW_th (discharge temperature of 25 °C). Geothermal wellhead water temperatures range from 53 to 92 °C, from 300 m deep wells yielding over 250 m³/h. Our conclusions show, amongst the different scenarios examined and on the basis of a market study, that utilisation of this geothermal energy capacity for district heating of nearby villages, and/or greenhouse heating directed at serving local vegetable markets, would be an attractive investment.     

Research and development of geothermal energy production in Hungary

The basement of the Pannonian (Carpathian) basin is represented by Paleozoic metamorphic and Mesozoic dolomite and limestone formations. The Tertiary basin gradually subsided during the Alpine orogeny down to 6000 m and was filled by elastic sediments with several water horizons.A heat flow of 2.0 to 3.4 μcal/cm²s gives temperature gradients between 45 and 70 °C/km in the basin. At 2000 m depth the virgin rock temperature is between 110 and 150°C. 80 geothermal wells about 2000 m deep have shown the great geothermal potential of the basin.The main hot water reservoir is the Upper Pliocene (Pannonian) sandstone formation. Hot water is produced by wells from the blanket or sheet sand and sandstone, intercalated frequently by siltstone. Between a 100–300 m interval, 3 to 8 permeable layers are exploited resulting in 1–3 m³/min hot water at 80–99°C temperature.Wells at present are overflowing with shut-in pressures of 3–5 atm.The Pannonian basin is a conduction-dominated reservoir. Convection systems are negligible, hot igneous systems do not exist. The assessment of geothermal resources revealed that the content of the water-bearing rocks down to 3000 m amounts to 12,600 × 10¹⁸cal. In the Tertiary sediments 10,560 × 10¹⁸cal and in the Upper Pannonian, 1938 × 10¹⁸cal are stored. In the Upper Pannonian geothermal reservoir, below 1000 m, where the virgin rock temperature is between 70 and 140°C, the stored heat is 768 × 10⁸cal. A 10¹⁸ cal is equivalent to the combustion heat of 100 million tons of oil. The amount of recoverable geothermal energy from 768 × 10⁸cal is 7.42 × 10¹⁸cal, i.e. about 10,000 MW century, not considering reinjection.At present the Pannonian geothermal reservoir stores the greatest amount of identified heat which can be mobilized and used. Hungary has 496 geothermal wells with a nominal capacity of 428 m³/min, producing 1342 MW heat. 147 wells have an outflow temperature of more than 60°C producing 190 m³/min, that is, 845 MW. In 1974 290 MWyear of geothermal energy was utilized in agriculture, district heating and industry.     

Geothermal development in Hungary—country update report 2000–2002

This paper describes the status of geothermal energy utilization—direct use—in Hungary, with emphasis on developments between 2000 and 2002. The level of utilization of geothermal energy in the world increased in this period and geothermal energy was the leading producer, with 70% of the total electricity production, of all the renewable energy sources (wind, solar, geothermal and tidal), followed by wind energy at 28%. The current cost of direct heat use from biomass is 1–5 US¢/kWh, geothermal 0.5–5 US¢/kWh and solar heating 3–20 US¢/kWh. The data relative to direct use in Hungary decreased in this period and the contribution of geothermal energy to the energy balance of Hungary, despite significant proven reserves (with reinjection) of 380 million m³/year, with a heat content of 63.5 PJ/a at ΔT=40 °C, remained very low (0.25%). Despite the fact that geothermal fluids with temperatures at the surface higher than 100 °C are available, no electricity has been generated. As of 31 December 2002, the geothermal capacity utilised in direct applications in Hungary is estimated to be 324.5 MW_t and to produce 2804 TJ/year. Geothermal heat pumps represent about 4.0 MW_t of this installed capacity. The quantity of thermal water produced for direct uses in 2002 was approximately 22 million m³, with an average utilization temperature of 31 °C. The main consumer of geothermal energy is agriculture (68% of the total geothermal heat dedicated to direct uses). The geothermal water is used only in five spas for space heating and sanitary hot water (SHW), although there are 260 spas in the country, and the thermal water produced has an average surface temperature of 68 °C. The total heat capacity installed in the spas is approximately 1250 MW_t; this is not provided by geothermal but could be, i.e., geothermal could provide more than three times the geothermal capacity utilized in direct uses by 31 December 2002 (324.5 MW_t).     

CO2 emissions from geothermal power plants and natural geothermal activity in Iceland

The ratio of CO₂ emissions from power plants to natural emissions is a measure of the environmental impact associated with geothermal power production. Emissions from Icelandic geothermal power plants amounted to 1.6 × 10⁸ kg year⁻¹ in 2002. Two independent estimates of natural CO₂ emissions range between 1 × 10⁸ and 2 × 10⁹ kg year⁻¹. Thus, power plant emissions are significant compared to estimated total emissions (i.e., not less than 8–16%). However, direct CO₂ flux measurements from four of the approximately 40 geothermal/volcanic systems in the country amounted to 3 × 10⁸ kg year⁻¹, indicating that these estimates of the total natural flux may be too low.     

Geothermal space heating

The use of geothermal resources for space heating dominates the direct use industry, with approximately 37% of all direct use development. Of this, 75% is provided by district heating systems. In fact, the earliest known commercial use of geothermal energy was in Chaudes-Aigues Cantal, France, where a district heating system was built in the 14th century. Today, geothermal district space heating projects can be found in 12 countries and provide some 44,772 TJ of energy yearly. Although temperatures in excess of 50 °C are generally required, resources as low as 40 °C can be used in certain circumstances, and, if geothermal heat pumps are included, space heating can be a viable alternative to other forms of heating at temperatures well below 10 °C.     

Deposition of amorphous silica in porous packed beds — predicting the lifetime of reinjection aquifers

Predicting deposition rates of dissolved silica in geothermal reinjection aquifers is difficult due to a lack of reliable scaling rates and the complexity of modelling fluid transport simultaneously with deposition. In order to develop techniques, understand the problems and improve our predictive capabilities, we have undertaken field experiments at Wairakei geothermal field, New Zealand, to determine amorphous silica deposition rates in 25 mm diameter pipes packed with 2 mm diameter zirconia beads. These pipes served as model aquifers. Five experiments using flashed fluid containing 530 ppm total silica were completed at temperatures between 71 and 129°C and at flowrates between 0.002 and 0.02 kg s⁻¹. The residence times in the pipes were shorter than the induction period required for silica polymerisation from solution. The scaling rates in the beds, measured over a month, were about 12 mg cm⁻² year⁻¹ and independent of flowrate between 80 and 129°C. Scaling at 129°C was unexpected, because the dissolved silica was expected to be undersaturated with respect to amorphous silica. At 71°C the rates were higher (up to 23 mg cm⁻² year⁻¹) and were proportional to flowrate. At Wairakei the 130°C fluid used in these experiments is disposed of by injection into a reservoir at 80°C. Using our field deposition rates, we estimate that 2.6×10⁵ kg of amorphous silica would precipitate in 10 years around the injection well, assuming an injection rate of 50 kg s⁻¹ into a 100 m thick reservoir of radius 500 m with permeability 100 mdarcy and a porosity of 0.2.     

Geochemistry of the surface and deep fluids of the Miravalles volcano geothermal system (Costa Rica)

The Miravalles high-temperature geothermal reservoir, located in the northwestern part of Costa Rica, is liquid-dominated. Reservoir temperatures generally range between 230 and 240 °C. The highest measured value is 255 °C. Bottom-hole measurements and solute geothermometry indicate that thermal conditions within the reservoir are very stable over time. The waters discharged from the wells have a neutral or slightly alkaline pH and are of the sodium-chloride type. Based on isotope data, the main recharge zone appears to be located on the northeastern side of the Guanacaste Cordillera. Several mixing trends have been identified between reservoir fluids and regional groundwaters. Gas discharges are dominated by CO₂, with minor amounts of H₂S and N₂. Relative N₂, Ar and He contents reveal a typical arc-type signature and significant inflow of meteoric-derived gases. Cl–SiO₂-enthalpy and δ¹⁸O–δ²H–Cl relationships suggest the existence of a maturation trend that is the result of both natural (i.e. direct drainage of deeper fluids) and anthropogenic causes (reinjection of Cl-rich waste waters). Acid fluids with SO₄-acidity (pH ranging between 2.4 and 3.7) have been encountered in three wells at the eastern border of the well field. Preliminary data assessment indicates two possible sources, either superficial H₂S oxidation or inflow of “immature” volcanic waters.     

Assessment of reservoir temperatures of thermal springs of the northern areas of Pakistan by chemical and isotope geothermometry

Chemical and isotope geothermometers, i.e. the Na–K, K–Mg, quartz and δ¹⁸O(SO₄–H₂O), have been applied to estimate the reservoir temperature of the thermal springs in the northern areas of Pakistan. The chemical types of the thermal waters and the effects of mixing of shallow cold water with the thermal end-members are discussed. These waters are neutral to slightly alkaline and have low dissolved contents. Sodium is the dominant cation in almost all the cases. In terms of anions, the hot waters of Budelas are of the SO₄ type, those of Tatta Pani are of mixed character (SO₄ and HCO₃), and the waters from the remaining areas show HCO₃ domination. An absence of tritium in Tatta Pani and Tato thermal springs indicates that they do not have any contribution of shallow young water. In the case of the Murtazabad springs, the wide range of tritium concentrations, negative correlations with surface temperature and Cl, and positive correlation between Na and Cl show that the shallow cold groundwater is mixing with thermal water in different proportions. For the mixed water of Murtazabad thermal springs, ‘isochemical modelling’ using the Na–K, K–Mg and quartz geothermometers indicates an equilibrium temperature in the range 185–200 °C. The δ¹⁸O(SO₄–H₂O) geothermometer gives relatively low temperatures for three springs, whereas two samples are close to the 185–200 °C temperature interval. The reservoir temperatures of Tatta Pani springs (100–120 °C), determined by Na–K and quartz geothermometers, are in good agreement. The δ¹⁸O(SO₄–H₂O) geothermometer gives a relatively higher range (140–150 °C) for most of the Tatta Pani springs. For Tato spring, the isotope and chemical geothermometers (except for the K–Mg) agree on an equilibrium temperature of about 170 °C. Reservoir temperatures of the remaining minor fields are not conclusive due to the lack of sufficient data.     

Highly textured ZnO thin films doped with indium prepared by the pyrosol method

Indium doped ZnO thin films have been prepared on heated Corning 7059 glass by the pyrosol spray method. It was found that indium doping has an important role in grain growth at high substrate temperature. Indium also was used to improve the electrical properties, acting as an N type dopant, and we obtained highly conductive ZnO:In thin films with a resistivity of 3.0 × 10⁻³ Ω cm. At substrate temperatures from 425°C to 475°C, the deposited ZnO:In thin films have clear hexagonal crystallites and, therefore, a highly textured surface showing optical haze phenomena due to the crystallites. The haze ratio of ZnO:ln thin films can be controlled from 10% to 50% at the wavelength of 550 nm by varying the substrate temperature from 375°C to 475°C.     

Photoelectrochemical and physical properties of WO3 films obtained by the polymeric precursor method

Tungsten trioxide (WO₃) films were prepared by a solution-based method using ammonium metatungstate as the precursor and polyethylene glycol as the structure-directing agent. With the measurements of thermogravimetric and differential thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and ultraviolet and visible absorption spectroscopy, the effect of substrates and temperature on the crystal structure and crystalline formation of WO₃ was investigated. The results show that the WO₃ films were crystallized by sintering at over 400 °C, and the films prepared on fluorine–tin oxide glass substrates were distorted cubic in crystalline phase. However, a monoclinic crystal was formed by coating films on graphite and quartz glass substrates. Photoelectrochemical activity was evaluated under visible light irradiation. The WO₃ electrode calcined at 450 °C exhibited a photocurrent density of up to 2.7 mA/cm² at 1.4 V (vs. RHE) under incident 100 mW/cm² 500 W Xe lamp and donor carrier density N_D = 2.44 × 10²² cm⁻³ in 0.5 M H₂SO₄ electrolyte. The photoanode was stable up to 90 min, and the photocurrent decreased 39% with continuous gas evolution.     

The Iceland Deep Drilling Project: a search for deep unconventional geothermal resources

The Iceland Deep Drilling Project (IDDP) is a long-term program to improve the economics of geothermal energy by producing supercritical hydrous fluids from drillable depths. Producing supercritical fluids will require the drilling of wells and the sampling of fluids and rocks to depths of 3.5–5 km, and at temperatures of 450–600 °C. The IDDP plans to drill and test a series of such deep boreholes in the Krafla, Nesjavellir and Reykjanes geothermal fields in Iceland. Beneath these three developed high-temperature systems frequent seismic activity continues below 5 km, indicating that, even at supercritical temperatures, the rocks are brittle and therefore likely to be permeable, even where the temperature is assumed to exceed 550–650 °C. Temperature gradients are greater and fluid salinities smaller at Nesjavellir and Krafla than at Reykjanes. However, an active drilling program is underway at Reykjanes to expand the existing generating capacity and the field operator has offered to make available one of a number of 2.5 km deep wells to be the first to be deepened to 5 km by the IDDP. In addition to its potential economic significance, drilling deep at this location, on the landward extension of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, is of great interest to the international science community. This paper examines the prospect of producing geothermal fluids from deep wells drilled into a reservoir at supercritical temperatures and pressures. Since fluids drawn from a depth of 4000–5000 m may prove to be chemically hostile, the wellbore and casing must be protected while the fluid properties are being evaluated. This will be achieved by extracting the fluids through a narrow retrievable liner called the “pipe”. Modelling indicates that if the wellhead enthalpy is to exceed that of conventionally produced geothermal steam, the reservoir temperature must be higher than 450 °C. A deep well producing 0.67 m³/s steam (2400 m³/h) from a reservoir with a temperature significantly above 450 °C could, under favourable conditions, yield enough high-enthalpy steam to generate 40–50 MW of electric power. This exceeds by an order of magnitude the power typically obtained from a conventional geothermal well in Iceland. The aim of the IDDP is to determine whether utilization of heat from such an unconventional geothermal resource at supercritical conditions will lead to increased productivity of wells at a competitive cost. If the IDDP is an economic success, this same approach could be applied in other high-temperature volcanic geothermal systems elsewhere, an important step in enhancing the geothermal industry worldwide.     

Reduction of defects of polycrystalline silicon thin films by heat treatment with high-pressure H2O vapor

An improvement of electrical properties of pulsed laser crystalllized silicon films was achieved by simple heat treatment with high-pressure H₂O vapor. The electrical conductivity of 7.4×10¹⁷ cm⁻³ phosphorus-doped 50-nm-thick pulsed laser crystallized silicon films was markedly increased from 1.6×10⁻⁵ S/cm (as crystallized) to 2 S/cm by heat treatment at 270°C for 3 h with 1.25×10⁶ Pa H₂O vapor because of reduction of density of defect states localized at grain boundaries. Spin density was reduced from 1.7×10¹⁸ cm⁻³ (as crystallized) to 1.2×10¹⁷ cm⁻³ by heat treatment at 310°C for 3 h with 1.25×10⁶ Pa H₂O vapor.     

Preparation of sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone)s containing amino groups/epoxy resin composite membranes and their in situ crosslinking for application in fuel cells

A series of amino-containing sulfonated poly(aryl ether ketone)/4,4′-diglycidyl(biphenyl) epoxy resin (DGBP) composite membranes for proton exchange membranes fuel cells (PEMFCs) are prepared by solution blending and casting. The reaction kinetics and the effects of introduction of DGBP content on the properties of the composite membranes are thoroughly investigated. The crosslinked composite membranes after treatment at either 120 °C or 200 °C have improved oxidative and dimensional stability than those without crosslinking. Despite the fact that crosslinked membranes generally have lower proton conductivity in comparison with the original ones, the proton conductivities of the membranes treated at 120 °C are above 2.22 × 10⁻² S cm⁻¹ at room temperature and 9.42 × 10⁻² S cm⁻¹ at 100 °C. Even for the samples treated at 200 °C, their proton conductivities are still higher than 1.26 × 10⁻² S cm⁻¹ at room temperature and higher than 8.67 × 10⁻² S cm⁻¹ at 100 °C, which are well satisfied with elementary requirement of fuel cells. In addition, all the evaluated membranes have low methanol permeability. For example, the methanol permeability of AP6FSPEEK/DGBP1 cured at 200 °C is 0.33 × 10⁻⁶ cm² s⁻¹, which is an order magnitude lower than Nafion 117. Therefore, these novel crosslinked composite membranes could be potential usage in fuel cells.     

Geothermal district heating for reno, Nevada, U.S.A.

The City of Reno is one of the most obvious candidates for geothermal district heating in the United States. Lying within a helt of major thermal anomalies, it has within its boundaries the Moana Hot Springs geothermal reservoir and probably other reservoirs, and only 14 km to the south is the major reservoir at Steamboat Hot Springs.This paper discusses the alternative heat sources that can be used, and selects Steamboat as the most conservative choice for a “worst-case” analysis of the details and economics of a model district heating system. A closed 16 km transmission loop between Steamboat and downtown Reno is envisaged, carrying 121°C water in the supply line and 65°C in the return line. This loop is isolated by heat exchangers from both the 176°C geothermal fluids at the Steamboat end of the line, and from the Reno user systems at the other. Detailed analysis of thermal demand densities in different parts of the City led to a model distribution network 48 km long, that serves the optimum grouping of zones of concentrated heat users. A large proportion of existing heating systems are hydronic and retrofitting of the selected buildings to the district heating system is relatively straightforward. Total peak load for the proposed system is 138 MJ s⁻¹ (139 MW_t) and annual consumption is 1.1 × 10¹⁵ J. Capital costs total about $55.4 million, in 1981 dollars. The economic analysis shows this system could provide considerable savings relative to the cost of natural gas, if revenue bond financing at 13% is employed for the construction and startup of the system. Even more favorable economic results could be achieved if a geothermal resource could be developed closer to downtown Reno, eliminating the high cost of the 16 km transmission pipeline. Reducing the service area to the most concentrated area of heat use in downtown Reno produces an even more viable system, about half the size of the full system.     

Optimization of process parameters in a large-area hot-wire CVD reactor for the deposition of amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) for solar cell application with highly uniform material quality

Scale-up of a-Si:H-based thin film applications such as solar cells, entirely or partly prepared by hot-wire chemical vapor deposition (HWCVD), requires research on the deposition process in a large-area HWCVD system. The influence of gas supply and filament geometry on thickness uniformity has already been reported, but their influence on material quality is systematically studied for the first time. The optimization of deposition parameters for obtaining best material quality in our large-area HWCVD system resulted in an optimum filament temperature, T_fil≈1600°C, pressure, p=8 mTorr and silane flow, F(SiH₄)=100 sccm, keeping the substrate temperature at T_S=200°C. A special gas supply (gas shower with tiny holes of uniform size) and a filament grid, consisting of six filaments with an interfilament distance, d_fil=4 cm were used. The optimum filament-to-substrate distance was found to be d_fil–S=8.4 cm. While studying the influence of different d_fil and gas supply configurations on the material quality, the above-mentioned setup and parameters yield best results for both uniformity and material quality. With the setup mentioned, we could achieve device quality a-Si:H films with a thickness uniformity of ±2.5% on a circular area of 20 cm in diameter. The material, grown at a deposition rate of r_d≈4 Å/s, was characterized on nine positions of the 30 cm×30 cm substrate area, and revealed reasonable uniformity of the opto-electronic properties, e.g photosensitivity, σ_Ph/σ_D=(2.46±0.7)×10⁵, microstructure factor, R=0.17±0.05, defect densities, N_d(PDS)=(2.06±0.6)×10¹⁷ cm⁻³ and N_d(CPM)=(2.05±0.5)×10¹⁶ cm⁻³ (film properties are given as mean values and standard deviations). Finally, we fabricated pin solar cells, with the i-layer deposited on small-area p-substrates distributed over an area of 20 cm×20 cm in this large-area deposition system, and achieved high uniformity of the cell parameters with initial efficiencies of η=(6.1±0.2)% on the 20 cm×20 cm area.     

Investigation of Cu metallization for Si solar cells

For application of copper metallization to silicon solar cells, electrical resistivity of the electroplated Cu was investigated for different annealing conditions: the rapid thermal annealing (RTA) and the vacuum annealing at various temperatures. The characteristics of Ti as the diffusion barrier were also observed. The specific contact resistance between Si and Ti/Cu was measured using Kelvin test pattern. For 8-min electroplated sample, the lowest resistivity of 2.1 μΩ cm was obtained at 300°C RTA condition. For Cu with Ti barrier, 400°C 2 min vacuum-annealed sample showed etch pits whereas 400°C RTA showed no etch pits. A vacuum annealing at 450°C for 30 min reduced the specific contact resistance to 7.2×10⁻⁶ Ω cm².     

The application of the polyaromatic sulfonates as tracers in geothermal reservoirs

Five polyaromatic sulfonate compounds, 1,3,6,8-pyrene tetrasulfonate, 1,5-naphthalene disulfonate, 1,3,6-naphthalene trisulfonate, 2-naphthalene sulfonate, and 2,7-naphthalene disulfonate, were tested for use as geothermal tracers. They were subjected to a simulated hydrothermal environment in batch autoclave reactors in order to determine their thermal decay kinetics. The decay kinetics study indicated that all of the compounds are suitable for use in reservoirs having temperatures up to 310 °C, whereas some are suitable for use in reservoirs as hot as 350 °C. Methods were developed for the chemical analysis of the polyaromatic sulfonates and their detection limits were shown to be approximately 200 parts per trillion by conventional high-performance liquid chromatography. The tracers were successfully tested in a series of field studies at Dixie Valley, Nevada; Steamboat Springs, Nevada; Ohaaki, New Zealand; and Awibengkok, Indonesia.     

Temperature evaluation of the Bugok geothermal system, South Korea

Using a variety of chemical geothermometers and statistical analysis, we estimate the temperature of a possible deeper geothermal reservoir at Bugok, Southern Korea. Shallow thermal aquifers (down to about 400 m depth) are under exploitation in this area; the temperatures (up to 78 °C) of the produced fluids are the highest found in South Korea. Based on hydrochemical data and occurrence, the groundwaters at Bugok can be classified under three groups: Na-SO₄ thermal groundwaters (CTGW) occurring in the central (about 0.24 km²) part of the area; Ca-HCO₃ cold groundwater (SCGW) found in shallow peripheral parts of the CTGW; the intermediate-type groundwater (STGW). The CTGW type is typical of the Bugok thermal waters; they have the highest discharge temperatures and contain very high concentrations of Na (75.1–101.0 mg/L), K (2.9–6.9 mg/L) and SiO₂ (62.0–84.5 mg/L) and are rich in sulfates.The major ion composition of the CTGW suggests that these waters are in partial equilibrium with rocks at depth. The application of various alkali-ion geothermometers yields temperature estimates in the 88–198 °C range for the thermal reservoir. Multiple-mineral equilibrium calculations indicate a similar but narrower temperature range (from about 100 to 155 °C). These estimates for CTGW are significantly higher than the measured discharge temperatures. Considering the heat losses occurring during the ascent of the waters, one can infer the presence of a deeper (around 1.8 km) thermal reservoir in the Bugok area that could be developed for district heating or other direct applications of geothermal heat.     

Chemical variations in hydrothermal minerals of the Los Humeros geothermal system, Mexico

The Los Humeros geothermal system is composed of more than 2200 m of Quaternary altered volcanic rocks and an underlying Cretaceous sedimentary sequence. The low salinity of the fluids discharged at present (Na⁺ and Cl⁻ concentrations <500 ppm), and the excess steam, indicate that the reservoir contains a mixture of steam and dilute groundwater. Water-rock equilibrium is not attained. Hydrothermal minerals are present in veinlets, vugs, and replacing primary minerals. Three mineral zones are recognized: 1) a shallow argillic zone (<400 m depth), 2) a propylitic zone (ranging between 500 and 1800 m) and 3) a skarn zone (>1800 m). Petrographic examination of cuttings from five wells and temperature data indicate at least two stages of hydrothermal activity. Temperature is the main factor that affects the chemical composition of chlorite, epidote and biotite. Fe²⁺ and Al^IV increase in chlorite with temperature [from 1.4 formula position unit (fpu) to 2.8, and from 0.7 to 2.4 fpu, respectively]. The pistacite content of epidote varies from 18 to 33 mol% in high-temperature regions (>270 °C) and from 13 to 26 mol% in low-temperature regions (<250 °C). Biotite displays a slight increase in Al^IV contents (1.55–2.8) and octahedral occupancy (5.93–6.0 fpu) with temperature. Whole rock composition and variations in oxygen fugacity conditions are factors that also affect the concentrations of Fe, Al and Mg in the octahedral sites of chlorite, epidote, biotite and amphiboles. Chemical variations observed in alteration minerals at different depths in the Colapso Central-Xalapazco region could be used as indicators of relict physico-chemical conditions in the reservoir, before the present economic exploitation.