"Know thyself."

Explores the understanding of selfhood as a central concern of psychology, the science of human experience. The conscious self defines human beings, fosters socialization, and, to a great extent, determines behavior. The achievement of a mature self-concept is viewed as a developmental process reflecting social experience as well as personal integration. Some implications of the self-concept are considered in relation to the family system, parenting, psychopathology, psychotherapy, and "the promotion of the public welfare." (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perspectives on selfhood.

Examines selfhood as the criterial features of the human condition from 3 perspectives: evolutionary or phylogenetic, cross-cultural and transhistorical, and developmental or ontogenetic. It is argued that to deal with the phenomena of selfhood, psychology has to be a historical and cultural science, as well as a biological one. The reflexiveness of selfhood makes theories about it important in partly constituting the selves that we are—an insight of the currently popular "attributional" approach. Yet the cognitive emphasis of the attributional approach requires balance from Jung's vision of dynamic archetypes. Indeed, if psychology is to begin to grasp the phenomena of selfhood, it needs to work in both the causal and the interpretative traditions, taken as complementary. (73 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Immigration and the psychodynamics of class.

Numerous psychoanalytic contributors have theorized about the substantive role played by cultural factors in organizing individual identity. In addition to individual and family dynamics, issues related to class, race, religion, and other cultural themes also exert a vital presence in the treatment setting. These social forces define experience in profound ways from which it is impossible that form an inextricable part of an individual's psychology. Societal values, norms, and forces are carried and represented, forming an ever-present backdrop to our psychological lives. They thus become, perforce, part of the treatment process whether or not the therapist or analyst is aware of their presence. In prior work I have explored the topic of the immigrant's construction of self as it relates to social class (Ainslie, 2009). I argue that one of the variables that shape an immigrant's psychology is his or her social class position in his or her country of origin. In the present contribution, I seek to extend this exploration of the topic of social class and the psychology of immigration through three vignettes that capture aspects of how social class becomes represented in the experience and therapeutic treatment of immigrants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychology of life stories.

Recent years have witnessed an upsurge of interest among theorists and researchers in autobiographical recollections, life stories, and narrative approaches to understanding human behavior and experience. An important development in this context is D. P. McAdams's life story model of identity (1985; see also records 1993-97296-000 and 1996-06098-001), which asserts that people living in modern societies provide their lives with unity and purpose by constructing internalized and evolving narratives of the self. The idea that identity is a life story resonates with a number of important themes in developmental, cognitive, personality, and cultural psychology. This article reviews and integrates recent theory and research on life stories as manifested in investigations of self-understanding, autobiographical memory, personality structure and change, and the complex relations between individual lives and cultural modernity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"The liberating effect on the analyst of the paradigm shift in psychoanalysis": Comment to Rabin.

Comments on H. M. Rabin's (see record 1996-15142-001) article that discusses, from an intersubjective perspective, a paradigm shift from a one-person to a two-person psychology experienced in psychoanalysis. Baker contends that although intersubjectivity theory, which has had a separate line of development from self psychology, does not see all idealizing statements as defenses against aggression, defensive idealization is specifically addressed by the concept of the defensive self ideal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selfhood at risk: Postmodern perils and the perils of postmodernism.

Various commentaries on the threats to personal well-being involved in contemporary Western middle-class life are examined, especially K. J. Gergen's (1991) treatment of the "saturated self." The version of postmodernism that Gergen advocated is criticized as representing an increasingly fashionable style of metatheory that reflects contemporary threats to selfhood but paralyzes endeavors to cope with them. A. Giddens's (1991) treatment of self and society in late modernity is selectively described as better fitted to a stance within which scientific and professional psychology can contribute to realistic hopefulness rather than to fin de siècle hopelessness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

One person and two person psychologies and the method of psychoanalysis.

The distinction between a monadic theory of mind (a one-person psychology) and a relational theory of mind (a two-person psychology) is crucial in understanding psychoanalytic concepts. However, some psychoanalytic theorists see these two models as essentially complementary whereas others see them as contradictory and irreconcilable. I argue that the artificial distinction between clinical theory and metapsychology obscures the recognition that the most fundamental psychoanalytic clinical concepts and procedures were formulated and historically understood as one-person phenomena. Transference was not conceptualized as an interpersonal event occurring between two people but was rather understood as a process occurring within the mind of the analysand. The article attempts to extricate fundamental clinical concepts from the quasibiological drive theory that has dominated both our metapsychology and our clinical theory, and to reexamine the value of these clinical concepts within a relational, contextual, and intersubjective framework. The article examines the method of free association in order to illustrate the different implications of one-person and two-person psychologies. I propose that a two-person or relational field theory does not need to neglect or minimize the... (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How the self became a problem: A psychological review of historical research.

Historical evidence pertaining to selfhood is reviewed. A scheme of stages is delineated, according to which the modern self and its uncertainties have evolved. These historical data are then reviewed in connection with the following four major problems regarding the self: knowing and conceptualizing the self; defining or creating the self; understanding one's potential and fulfilling it; and relating the single self to society. (127 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

There is no outside: Empathy and authenticity in psychoanalytic process.

Within the relational revisioning of psychoanalysis, important questions have emerged concerning the compatibility or incompatibility of the empathic understanding so treasured by self psychology and the authentic participation championed by relational analysts more indebted to the interpersonalist and Kleinian traditions. Does remaining close to the patient's emotional perspective require the analyst to become dishonest or inauthentic? Or conversely, does authentic participation require an emotional distance incompatible with empathic understanding? The author argues for a clinical sensibility and a theoretical/philosophical orientation that renders authenticity and empathy not only compatible with but also necessary to each other. This solution proceeds not by an appeal to dialectic, paradox, or shifting listening perspectives, but rather by questioning the assumptions that create the apparent opposition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The debate on individualism: Indigenous psychologies of the individual and their role in personal and societal functioning.

Two sides have emerged in the debate over the merits of American individualism. This article enters that debate first by differentiating between 2 indigenous psychologies of individualism, varying by the nature of the self–nonself boundary, the understanding of control as personal or field, and the conceptualization of persons as defined by their exclusiveness or their inclusiveness. Self-contained individualism (firm boundaries, personal control, and an exclusionary concept of the person) is the familiar cultural type, addressed both by proponents and opponents of individualism. An alternate indigenous psychology, which I term ensembled individualism, is supported by cross-cultural, historical, and intracultural evidence and defines a contrasting framework for understanding individualism. Three core cultural values—freedom, responsibility, and achievement—are examined under each type. Contrary to the proponents of self-contained individualism, who state that only this type of individualism can realize these 3 values, I suggest not only that ensembled individualism can achieve these cultural ideals in a more lasting manner, but also that the self-contained form may actually thwart their realization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experiential account of the psychology of art.

In this article, the authors consider the potential contribution of the concept “lived experience” to the psychology of art. From the perspective of “lived experience,” the self is always already engaged and comes to every situation with personal interests and ideologies, and the art object is, among other things, understood as “speaking to” or addressing interests and ideologies. This view situates art objects at the center of a variety of sense-making processes: embodied, felt, emotional, intellectual, and intersubjective. It also makes changes in identity that come about through aesthetic experience central to our analysis. In considering the potential of “lived experience,” the authors will examine the associated experiences of viewing and making art. The authors will argue that examining these experiences would benefit from a qualitative methodology and a focus on selfhood. The authors sketch the outlines of such an approach by examining relevant work from Dewey, Vygotsky, and Bakhtin. For these authors, creating an account of art also involves constructing an ontology of lived experience. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Narratology, Cultural Psychology, and Counseling Research.

Narratological research is defined in relation to narrative theory and a cultural psychology perspective. Narrative concepts and methodology are explained, including the configural mode of understanding and principles of narrative analysis. Examples of application in psychological and counseling research are presented, with a discussion of issues of validity and voice. Suggestions are made on how narrative studies are to be evaluated. It is concluded that narratological research, with its focus on meanings and the storied nature of human life, can be especially useful in discovery research on identity development and the experience of counseling and life transitions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gordon Allport, character, and the "culture of personality," 1897–1937.

Examines the cultural context of early American personality psychology through a consideration of the early career of Gordon Allport. Between 1921 and 1937, Allport was among the leading figures in the movement to establish personality as a research category in American psychology. Far from being a strictly scientific concern, Allport's project was deeply embedded in the cultural politics of the age. Of particular importance was the gradual erosion of the language of character and the self-sacrificing, morally grounded self that it supported. Allport's "psychology of personality" helped fuel this trend while simultaneously attempting to resist it. His experience illustrates the elasticity and moral ambiguity of the newly emerging category of personality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Voicing the self: From information processing to dialogical interchange.

Dialog implies an interchange between mutually influencing voices. Two metaphors playing a major role in contemporary research are analyzed from such a perspective: the computer metaphor, in which the self is studied as an information-processing device, and the narrative metaphor, in which story and storytelling are guiding principles for the self. It is argued that, on the metaphorical level, the computer and the narrative analogy allow voice and intersubjective exchange to play important roles in self-organization. In actual research, however, these elements are neglected. Theoretical and empirical arguments emphasize the relevance of the dialogical view for the study of the self. Finally, the role of dominance in inter- and intrapersonal processes and the relevance of collective voices for contemporary psychology are sketched. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moving cultures: The perilous problems of cultural dichotomies in a globalizing society.

The accelerating process of globalization and the increasing interconnections between cultures involve an unprecedented challenge to contemporary psychology. In apparent contrast to these trends, academic mainstream conceptions continue to work in a tradition of cultural dichotomies (e.g., individualistic vs. collectivistic, independent vs. interdependent), reflecting a classificatory approach to culture and self. Three developments are presented that challenge this approach: (a) cultural connections leading to hybridization, (b) the emergence of a heterogeneous global system, and (c) the increasing cultural complexity. By elaborating on these challenges, a basic assumption of cross-cultural psychology is questioned: culture as geographically localized. Finally, 3 themes are described as examples of an alternative approach: a focus on the contact zones of cultures rather than on their center, the complexities of self and identity, and the experience of uncertainty. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a "global-community psychology": Meeting the needs of a changing world.

Changes in telecommunications, transportation, and economic ties are linking our welfare and well-being to events and forces in distant lands. Emerging social, cultural, political, and environmental problems around the globe are imposing intense and complex demands on individual and collective psyches, challenging our sense of identity, control, and well-being. The fabled global community is now upon us. Psychology can assist in addressing and resolving these problems, especially if it is willing to reconsider some of its fundamental premises, methods, and practices that are rooted within Western cultural traditions and to expand its appreciation and use of other psychologies. The present article advocates the development of a superordinate or meta-discipline of psychology—global-community psychology—defined as a set of premises, methods, and practices for psychology based on multicultural, multidisciplinary, multisectoral, and multinational foundations that are global in interest, scope, relevance, and applicability. Characteristics of global-community psychology as a disciplinary specialty are discussed, as are various issues supporting its development and need. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Autonomy and rigid character.

Reviews the book, Autonomy and Rigid Character by David Shapiro (1981). Contemporary thought and research in psychology are heavily saturated with curiosity about the self. There is heightened interest in such matters as the origins of self-regarding attitudes, the effects of focusing attention upon oneself as compared to nonself objects, and the manner in which self-structures serve as selective lenses. The literature teems with topics like narcissism, self-concept, mirror effects, and ego boundaries. Shapiro's book is really an essay about the nature of selfhood. It explores the problems of becoming an independent self and the desperate maneuvers that individuals may resort to in an effort to patch up rents in that abode. To be more specific, Shapiro addresses two issues. First, he explores the degree to which we are actually in charge of ourselves. Second, he outlines the presumed consequences of attempting to defend one's self-territory too rigidly. Shapiro conceptualizes the average individual's life space too narrowly and rigidly. He is too quick to impose standards of what is healthy or unhealthy. He too easily falls back on a theoretically derived mythic concept of the average environment that fails to take into account its natural vastness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comment on Cooper's "The passing of psychology" (Vol. 23, no. 4, October 1982).

Comments on R. M. Cooper's original article, "The passing of psychology" (see record 1983-26906-001). According to Cooper, psychology has become fruitless, devoid of substance and honest accomplishment and the real productivity of science is to be seen in material accomplishments. According to the current author, a materialist view makes any step in the world of ideas pitifully small by comparison. Materialist "science" will seem awesome, while enlargement of understanding that does not have an immediate physical expression can only be trivial musing. This is an all too prevalent view of science. Psychology is not dead. The science and practice of psychology are blessed, as they have long been, with keen and competent minds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Salvaging the self in a world without soul: William James's The Principles of Psychology.

This article explores William James's transformation of the religious soul into the secular self in The Principles of Psychology. Although James's views on the self are familiar to many historians of psychology, the article places his treatment of the self within the broader social and cultural context of a secularizing, industrializing society. There were palpable tensions and anxieties that accompanied the cultural shift, and these are particularly transparent in James's Principles. James attempted the project of secularizing the soul in order to promote a natural science of the mind but with marked ambivalence for the project, because it left out some of the moral and metaphysical questions of great interest to him. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Virtue ethics, multiculturalism, and the paradox of cultural dialogue.

Comments on the article by Fowers and Davidov, "The virtue of multiculturalism: Personal transformation, character and openess to the other," (see record 2006-11202-002). Fowers and Davidov offered a virtue-based approach to understanding and fostering multiculturalism in psychology. Fowers and Davidov argued that multiculturalism fulfills the classical components of being a virtue, being a worthy goal that requires the wise use of consistent and worthwhile goods. They concluded that the virtue of multiculturalism and its correlate, openness, provide a sound basis for transformative cultural dialogue. It appears that Fowers and Davidov may be caught in what Meiland (1980) has called "The Paradox of Cognitive Relativism." I would argue that the problem, rather than being a faulty argument on their part, is the intrinsic incoherence of an ethic of multiculturalism, which insists that we respect a diversity of cultural backgrounds, and yet insists. The virtue model of ethics is relevant to our cultural concerns as psychologists but certainly does not resolve them. Instead, because it is soundly based in the idea of personal character, its value lies in bringing to light the very dilemmas involving human similarity and difference that have troubled psychologists since the inception of the field. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)