Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Dissimilar Double-Side Friction Stir Welds Between Medium-Thick 6061-T6 Aluminum and Pure Copper Plates

It is difficult to achieve Al/Cu dissimilar welds with good mechanical properties for medium-thick plates due to the inherent high heat generation rate at the shoulder-workpiece contact interface in conventional friction stir welding. Thus, double-side friction stir welding is innovatively applied to join 12-mm medium-thick 6061-T6 aluminum alloy and pure copper dissimilar plates, and the effect of welding speeds on the joint microstructure and mechanical properties of Al/Cu welds is systematically analyzed. It reveals that a sound Al/Cu joint without macroscopic defects can be achieved when the welding speed is lower than 180 mm/min, while a nonuniform relatively thick intermetallic compound (IMC) layer is formed at the Al/Cu interface, resulting in lots of local microcracks within the first-pass weld under the plunging force of the tool during friction stir welding of the second-pass, and seriously deteriorates the mechanical properties of the joint. With the increase of welding speed to more than 300 mm/min void defects appear in the joint, but the joint properties are still better than the welds performed at low welding speed conditions since a continuous uniform thin IMCs layer is formed at the Al/Cu interface. The maximum tensile strength and elongation of Al/Cu weld are, respectively, 135.11 MPa and 6.06%, which is achieved at the welding speed of 400 mm/min. In addition, due to the influence of welding distortion of the first-pass weld, the second-pass weld is more prone to form void defects than the first-pass weld when the same plunge depth is applied on both sides. The double-side friction stir welding is proved to be a good method for dissimilar welding of medium-thick Al/Cu plates.     

EFFECT OF TOOL WEAR ON MICROSTRUCTURE, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND ACOUSTIC EMISSION OF FRICTION STIR WELDED 6061 Al ALLOY

Tool condition is one of the main concerns in friction stir welding （FSW）, because the geometrical condition of the tool pin including size and shape is strongly connected to the microstrueture and mechanical performance of the weld. Tool wear occurs during FSW, especially for welding metal matrix composites with large amounts of abrasive particles, and high melting point materials, which significantly expedite tool wear and deteriorate the mechanical performance of welds. Tools with different pin-wear levels are used to weld 6061 Al alloy, while acoustic emission （AE） sensing, metallographic sectioning, and tensile testing are employed to evaluate the weld quality in various tool wear conditions. Structural characterization shows that the tool wear interferes with the weld quality and accounts for the formation of voids in the nugget zone. Tensile test analysis of samples verifies that both the ultimate tensile strength and the yield strength are adversely affected by the formation of voids in the nugget due to the tool wear. The failure location during tensile test clearly depends on the state of the tool wear, which led to the analysis of the relationships between the structure of the nugget and tool wear. AE signatures recorded during welding reveal that the AE hits concentrate on the higher amplitudes with increasing tool wear. The results show that the AE sensing provides a potentially effective method for the on-line manitoring of tool wear.     

Friction stir welding of aluminium lap joint by tool without probe

A friction stir welding process, with a rotating tool without a probe, was employed and applied to a lap joint of aluminium plate. The thickness of the aluminium plates was 0.5 mm. New tool shapes were developed. The tops of the tool were dome shaped. In this process, the rotating tool was plunged into the aluminium plate. The tool-rotating axis was vertical to the specimen surface, and then moved in the welding direction at a speed of 20 mm/s. Tool rotation speed was 18,000 rpm.

At tool plunge depths of 0.1 mm or over, it was possible to weld the two plates. At tool plunge depth of 0.1 mm, its joint was fractured at the weld interface. At tool plunge depth of 0.2 mm or over, the joints were fractured at the stir zone of the upper plate or the heat affected zone of the lower plate. Based on observation of the hardness profiles and the thickness change of the weld area, controlling factors of the joint strength are discussed.     

Monitoring of acoustic emission during the welding process

Abstract

Acoustic emission (AE) measurements were carried out during submerged-arc welding, in order to verify the capability of AE to detect crack growth during welding.

Using copper powder and different welding parameters, a number of ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ cracks were obtained in welds on A516 CrMo steel plates.

The results showed that some of the AE signals recorded during and after welding were due to the flaws. The possibility of locating events due to the flaws, along the weld seam, was also demonstrated.     

基于小波频带能的脉冲VPPA焊接熔透特征信息提取

焊缝熔透状态的监控对焊接过程质量控制和自动化生产的实现具有重要的意义。建立脉冲VPPA焊接系统,对脉冲VPPA焊接不同熔透状态的电弧电压进行小波分解,将其分解到不同频带,进行频带能量的计算,提取了与频带能量对应的熔透状态特征信息。研究结果表明：脉冲VPPA焊接电弧电压高频频带能量能够很好地反映焊缝熔透状态,当焊缝熔透状态发生变化时频带能量值产生突变,可作为脉冲VPPA焊接过程在线检测量,为脉冲VPPA焊接熔透实时控制提供一种新方法。     

Impact property analysis of weld metal and heat-affected zone for low-alloy carbon steel multi-pass welded joint

Welded joint impact performances of low-alloy carbon steel plates welded by full-automatic gas metal arc welding (GMAW) were evaluated. To clarity the effect of impact temperature on impact properties of weld metal (WM) and heat-affected zone (HAZ), Charpy V impact tests at different temperatures and fracture surface analysis were carried out. The Charpy V impact energy decreases with the decreasing test temperature both for the WM and HAZ, while the proportion of crystal zone on WM and HAZ impact fracture surface increases with the decreasing test temperature. Research results indicate that the welding defects (void and slag) make the impact energy of WM more scattered and lower than that of HAZ.     

Effect of Welding Parameters on the Microstructure and Strength of Friction Stir Weld Joints in Twin Roll Cast EN AW Al-Mn1Cu Plates

Twin roll cast EN AW Al-Mn1Cu plates were butt welded with the friction stir welding process which employed a non-consumable tool, tilted by 1.5° and 3° with respect to the plate normal, rotated in a clockwise direction at 400 and 800 rpm, while traversing at a fixed rate of 80 mm/min along the weld line. Microstructural observations and microhardness tests were performed on sections perpendicular to the tool traverse direction. Tensile tests were carried out at room temperature on samples cut perpendicular to the weld line. The ultimate tensile strength of the welded EN AW Al-Mn1Cu plates improved with increasing tool rotation speed and decreasing tool tilt angle. This marked improvement in ultimate tensile strength is attributed to the increase in the heat input owing to an increased frictional heat generation. There appears to be a perfect correlation between the ultimate tensile strength and the size of the weld zone. The fracture surfaces of the base plate and the welded plates are distinctly different. The former is dominated by dimples typical of ductile fractures. A vast majority of the intermetallic particles inside the weld zones are too small to generate dimples during a tensile test. The fracture surface of the welded plates is thus characterized by occasional dimples that are elongated in the same direction suggesting a tensile tearing mechanism.     

附加超声对6061-T6铝合金/Q235钢搅拌摩擦焊搭接工艺优化

采用超声振动强化搅拌摩擦焊接工艺实现了6061-T6铝合金和Q235钢异种金属的有效连接,考察了超声能量对焊缝成形、接头组织、力学性能以及焊接载荷的影响.结果表明,施加超声能量可以显著改善焊缝表面成形,增加铝/钢界面区和焊核区的宽度.超声振动细化了焊核区和热力影响区的晶粒组织,改变了搭接接头的断裂机制和断裂位置,提高了...     

先进的搅拌摩擦焊

搅拌摩擦焊是利用一种特殊形式的搅拌头边旋转边前进，通过搅拌头与工件的摩擦产生热量，摩擦热使该部位金属处于热塑性状态，并在搅拌头的压力作用下从其前端向后部塑性流动，从而使待焊件压焊为一个整体。它可以焊接所有牌号的铝合金以及用熔焊方法难以焊接的材料，并突破了普通摩擦焊对轴类零件的限制。由于搅拌摩擦焊是固态焊接，所以没有熔化焊时的气孔、裂纹等缺陷。搅拌摩擦焊的接头性能普遍优于熔化焊的。     

20mm厚2219铝合金可回抽搅拌摩擦焊接及接头组织和性能分析

为了解决封闭环缝的焊接匙孔问题,研究了采用可回抽搅拌摩擦焊接进行匙孔消除的焊接工艺. 在厚板可回抽焊接过程中,搅拌针末端的瞬时空腔问题受体积效应影响将更为显著且更难控制. 研究了不同回抽焊接长度下20 mm中厚板2219铝合金可回抽焊接接头的内部质量、组织形貌和力学性能. 结果表明,在焊接速度100 mm/min、搅拌头转速400 r/min的参数组合下,回抽焊接区长度为200 ~ 500 mm时,可获得无内部缺陷的可回抽搅拌摩擦焊焊缝;回抽焊接区接头横截面上存在2个焊核,靠近焊缝上表面的焊核大小随着回抽过程不断减小;一次焊接、重复焊接和可回抽焊接接头的拉伸性能依次降低,且可回抽焊接接头的力学性能随着回抽距离的增长而有所提升;在实际工程应用中回抽距离500 mm为较优的参数选择.     

Macrostructures and mechanical properties of ultrasonic-assisted friction stir welding joint of 2024-T3 aluminium alloy

In friction stir welding of aluminum alloys, tunnel defect may occur due to insufficient plastic material flow caused by lower heat input in the weld region. The inadequacy in heat input is due to improper selection of friction stir welding tool and process parameters. Ultimately, such defects degrade the properties of weld and may pose serious concerns towards the integrity and safety of the weld component. In order to improve the properties of weld joints, an ultrasonic-assisted friction stir welding device has been configured where ultrasonic energy is transferred from an ultrasonic unit directly into one of the workpieces near the tool. Using this configuration, ultrasonic-assisted friction stir welding was conducted on 6 mm thick 2024-T3 aluminum alloy sheets. The macrostructure and mechanical properties of these welds were compared with the welds of this alloy prepared by conventional friction stir welding using identical process parameters. The results show that the welding speed can be increased while satisfactory weld quality is still ensured. The ultrasonic energy transferred in this configuration could enlarge the volume of weld nugget zone. Also, the influence of ultrasonic energy on the suppression or elimination of the tunnel defect is quite apparent. However, any beneficial effects of ultrasonic vibration on the tensile strength and the elongation of the joint were less obvious in this configuration.     

铝/镀锌钢异种金属旁路分流MIG电弧熔钎焊界面区组织与接头性能

以2 mm厚6061铝合金与镀锌钢板为试验材料,进行旁路分流MIG电弧熔钎焊工艺试验.采用金相显微镜、扫描电镜和拉伸试验机对接头组织及力学性能进行研究,分析了不同焊接速度时界面层组织和接头性能的变化规律.结果表明,随焊接速度增加焊接热输入减少,界面温度下降,元素扩散速度降低,导致接头界面结合层变薄.另外接头强度随焊接速度与界面层厚度增加呈现先增加后减小的趋势,最高强度达135.32 MPa.当焊接速度较低时,界面温度高,易形成脆性金属间化合物,导致其接头性能下降;高速焊接时,铝/钢界面反应不充分,甚至存在未钎合和气孔等缺陷,影响了接头性能.     

S135钻杆摩擦焊接头热处理后的组织和性能

36CrNiMo4A钢制S135钻杆的工具接头和管体采用摩擦方式进行焊接，对摩擦焊接头进行了适当热处理。对钻杆工具接头、管体、焊合区三点弯曲试样的断裂韧度进行了测试，分析了弯曲试样的微观组织和断裂形貌以及接头焊合区韧性损伤的原因。结果表明，S135钻杆经摩擦焊接和热处理后，改善和提高了摩擦焊接头焊合区的组织和性能，其断裂韧度值J1C达到48kJ／m^2，钻杆钻井深度超过5300m，满足了使用要求。     

LF21超声搅拌摩擦焊接头组织及性能分析

利用超声波对金属塑性成形作用对LF21铝合金进行了超声搅拌摩擦焊接试验,并对常规搅拌摩擦焊与超声搅拌摩擦焊接头的微观组织、断口形貌进行了对比分析.结果表明,超声能量通过搅拌头有效地导入焊缝底部,在增加焊缝底部搅拌强度的同时,提高了搅拌针周围金属原子的运动和扩散能力,焊核区的金属组织有明显的晶粒细化和组织均匀化.超声搅拌摩擦焊断口韧窝数量与深度均不及常规搅拌摩擦焊,撕裂棱不明显;超声搅拌摩擦焊可以提高接头力学性能,但平均断后伸长率相比常规搅拌摩擦焊有所下降.     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties for TIG Welding Joint of High Boron Fe-Ti-B Alloy

采用钨极气体保护焊,以基体金属作为焊接填料,可以成功实现对高硼Fe-Ti-B合金的焊接。对焊件的微观结构进行了分析,研究表明,高硼Fe-Ti-B合金的焊接质量良好,焊接接头处不存在裂纹、未熔合、未焊透等缺陷;熔合区和热影响区的微观结构与基体明显不同,但能谱分析表明其化学成分非常均匀。对焊件进行了力学性能测试。测试结果表明,相对于基体材料,焊件的屈服强度略有升高,但抗拉强度降低。尽管如此,焊后高硼Fe-Ti-B合金的抗拉强度高于580 MPa,屈服强度高于400 MPa,焊件的力学性能已达到一个较高的水平。     

Problems in laser repair-welding a surface-treated tool steel

A research work is described on the development of defects in laser repair welding of a surface-treated tool steel. Repair welding tests were carried out on plasma-nitrided and on chrome-plated type 1.2738 steel plates. Welding defects in the chrome-plated samples were mainly due to chrome and oxygen overalloying of the weld metal, leading to extensive hot cracking. Cracks of the surface chrome deposit in the HAZ due to welding stresses were also detected. In the nitrided samples, welding resulted in the copious formation of gas pores due to nitrogen release during weld metal solidification. A procedure for combined laser pre-treating and laser welding of the nitrided samples was thus presented. The procedure is aimed at minimising the negative effect of the laser beam on the structural integrity of the base and welded material. The results of the microstructural analyses revealed that a significant reduction in defects could be achieved by the proposed method in the nitrided samples.     

铍的焊接缺陷及其控制技术研究

加填充材料焊接铍是防止铍焊缝开裂的技术措施之一,但加填充材料对铍进行高能束焊接可使焊缝形成钎接焊.介绍了铍焊接时生成的缺陷,主要有焊接裂纹、气孔、夹杂、未焊透和热影响区的晶粒长大等,全面系统地总结了铍焊接形成的各类缺陷,减轻和消除焊接缺陷的各种试验技术.在焊接参数试验的过程中,避开对焊接裂纹敏感的脉冲焊和深熔焊接工艺参数,可使铍的焊接缺陷（特别是焊接裂纹）明显地减少.     

Real-time monitoring of weld penetration quality in roboticarc welding process

It is of great significance to develop an intelligent monitoring system for weld penetration defects such as incomplete penetration and burn-through in real-time during robotic arc welding process. In this paper, robotic gas metal arc welding experiments are carried out on the mild steel test pieces with Vee-type groove. Through-the-arc sensing method is used to capture the transient values of the welding voltage and current. The raw data of the captured welding current and voltage are processed statistically, and the feature vector S10 is extracted to correlate the welding conditions to the weld penetration information. It lays foundation for intelligent monitoring of weld quality in robotic arc welding.     

Friction stir spot welding of aluminium to steel by rotating tool without probe

A friction stir spot welding process, in which a rotating tool without a probe was employed, was applied to a lap joint of an aluminium plate to a low carbon steel plate. The thicknesses of both plates were 0.5 mm. In this process, the rotating tool of 5 mm diameter, rotating at 18,000 rpm, was plunged into the aluminium plate at a rate of 2 mm/s, and then kept at a maximum plunged depth of 0.05–0.35 mm for 0–2 s (dwell time). In the weld obtained by this process, a hole due to the impression of the penetrated tool probe was not formed, although a slight depression by the tool plunging remained. At tool plunge depths of 0.1 mm or over, it was possible to weld the two plates. The maximum tensile failure load of 454 N was obtained at a plunge depth of 0.1 mm and a dwell time of 1.5 s. Its joint was fractured at an almost constant load along the periphery of the depression, leaving a part of the aluminium plate on the steel plate surface. Based on the observation of the weld interface microstructure and metal flow of aluminium in the weld, controlling factors of the joint strength were discussed.     

高速列车用厚板铝合金CMT焊接工艺

针对低热输入、高质量焊接技术的需求,研究厚板铝合金多层多道冷金属过渡技术(cold matal transter,CMT)焊接工艺和脉冲MIG焊接工艺的区别,对CMT焊接和脉冲MIG焊接进行热循环曲线测量,焊接接头拉伸、弯曲、硬度等常规力学性能试验和接头微观组织分析.结果表明,铝合金厚板焊接时相对脉冲MIG焊接方法,CMT方法焊接温度场低,焊接接头软化明显减弱,冲击韧性得到提高,厚板多层多道焊接接头组织明显改善,晶粒明显细化.试验表明CMT焊接方法可获得相对脉冲焊接更加优良的铝合金焊接接头.