The structural response of clamped sandwich beams subjected to impact loading

The structural response of dynamically loaded monolithic and sandwich beams made of aluminum skins with different cores is determined by loading the end-clamped beams at mid-span with metal foam projectiles. The sandwich beams comprise aluminum honeycomb cores and closed-cell aluminum foam cores. Laser displacement transducer was used to measure the permanent transverse deflection of the back face mid-point of the beams. The resistance to shock loading is evaluated by the permanent deflection at the mid-span of the beams for a fixed magnitude of applied impulse and mass of beam. It is found that sandwich beams with two kind cores under impact loading can fail in different modes. Experimental results show the sandwich beams with aluminum honeycomb cores present mainly large global deformation, while the foam core sandwich beams tend to local deformation and failure, but all the sandwich beams had a higher shock resistance, then the monolithic beam. For each type of beams, the dependence of transverse deflection upon the magnitude of the applied impulse is measured. Moreover, the effects of face thickness and core thickness on the failure and deformation modes were discussed. Results indicated that the structural response of sandwich beams is sensitive to applied impulse and structural configuration. The experimental results are of worth to optimum design of cellular metallic sandwich structures.     

Fabrication and mechanical testing of glass fiber entangled sandwich beams: A comparison with honeycomb and foam sandwich beams

The aim of this paper is the fabrication and mechanical testing of entangled sandwich beam specimens and the comparison of their results with standard sandwich specimens with honeycomb and foam as core materials. The entangled sandwich specimens have glass fiber cores and glass woven fabric as skin materials. The tested glass fiber entangled sandwich beams possess low compressive and shear modulus as compared to honeycomb and foam sandwich beams of the same specifications. Although the entangled sandwich beams are heavier than the honeycomb and foam sandwich beams, the vibration tests show that the entangled sandwich beams possess higher damping ratios and low vibratory levels as compared to honeycomb and foam sandwich beams, making them suitable for vibro-acoustic applications where structural strength is of secondary importance, e.g., internal paneling of a helicopter.     

Dynamic wrinkling in sandwich beams

Facings of sandwich structures employed in typical applications are often subject to parametric periodic loading. Such loading can cause local dynamic instability of the facings, i.e. large-amplitude small wavelength lateral vibrations. This phenomenon, called in the paper dynamic wrinkling, may result in fatigue damage or immediate failure. The problem of dynamic wrinkling of the facings is analyzed in the present paper for sandwich beams and for large aspect ratio wide panels that vibrate forming a cylindrical surface. The solution is obtained for the case of a relatively thick or compliant core where the Winkler elastic foundation model of the core is applicable. In addition, the problem is formulated as an extension of the Plantema core model that may be preferable for thinner and stiffer cores. In addition, a new simplified elasticity model is introduced in the paper that is based on the assumption that both facings experience simultaneous and interactive dynamic wrinkling instability. Numerical results shown for the elastic foundation model include the criterion for the onset of dynamic wrinkling and the critical value of the damping coefficient of the facing that is sufficient to prevent such wrinkling. As follows from these results, dynamic wrinkling is unlikely in most engineering applications, except for the case in which the maximum stresses in the facing approach the static wrinkling value.     

Mechanical behaviors of carbon fiber composite sandwich columns with three dimensional honeycomb cores under in-plane compression

Mechanical properties and failure modes of carbon fiber composite egg and pyramidal honeycombs cores under in plane compression were studied in the present paper. An interlocking method was developed for both kinds of three-dimensional honeycombs. Euler or core shear macro-buckling, face wrinkling, face inter-cell buckling, core member crushing and face sheet crushing were considered and theoretical relationships for predicting the failure load associated with each mode were presented. Failure mechanism maps were constructed to predict the failure of these composite sandwich panels subjected to in-plane compression. The response of the sandwich panels under axial compression was measured up to failure. The measured peak loads obtained in the experiments showed a good agreement with the analytical predictions. The finite element method was used to investigate the Euler buckling of sandwich beams made with two different honeycomb cores and the comparisons between two kinds of honeycomb cores were conducted.     

Design of sandwich structures for concentrated loading

While sandwich construction offers well-known advantages for high stiffness with light weight, the problem of designing the sandwich structure to withstand localized loading, such as from accidental impact, remains an important problem. This problem is more difficult with lower stiffness cores, such as expanded foam. In the present study, experiments have been carried out on foam core sandwich beams with carbon/epoxy faces, under conditions of concentrated loading. The variables considered were the density of the foam and the relative thickness of the core. The common failure modes of sandwich structures were observed, including core failure in compression and shear, delamination, and fiber failure in the faces. These failure modes were systematically related to the test variables by means of a detailed stress analysis of the specimen, and a consideration of the failure properties of the constituent materials. The loading is characterized by localized high stress and strain concentrations that are not predicted in first-order shear deformation sandwich beam theory. The three-dimensional elasticity solution of Pagano was used to obtain the stress distributions. The strength prediction requires a detailed consideration of the localized nature of the loading, including the effects of strain gradients in the faces. The results show that failure modes and load levels can be predicted for sandwich structures under concentrated loading, but that accurate predictions require a consideration of the details of the concentrated loading. The results have a direct application in predicting the ability of sandwich structures to withstand localized loading such as from accidental impact.     

Dynamic response of clamped sandwich beam with aluminium alloy foam core subjected to impact loading

The dynamic response of clamped sandwich beam with aluminium alloy open-cell foam core subjected to impact loading is investigated in the paper. The face sheet and the core of the sandwich beam have the different thickness. And the sandwich beam is impacted by a steel projectile in the mid-span. The impact force is recorded by using accelerometer. The results show that tensile crack and core shear are the dominant failure modes. And the impact velocity and the thickness of the face sheet and the foam core have a significant influence on the failure modes and the impact forces. Combining with the inertia effect and experimental results, the failure mechanisms of the sandwich beams are discussed. The thickness of the foam core plays an important role in the failure mechanism of the sandwich beam. In present paper, the failure of the sandwich beam with a thin core is dominated by the bending moment, while the sandwich beam with a thick core fails by bending deformation in the front face sheet and the bottom face sheet in opposite direction due to the plastic hinges in the front face sheet.     

Failure mode maps for honeycomb sandwich panels

Failure modes for sandwich beams of GFRP laminate skins and Nomex honeycomb core are investigated. Theoretical models using honeycomb mechanics and classical beam theory are described. A failure mode map for loading under 3-point bending is constructed, showing the dependence of failure mode and load on the ratio of skin thickness to span length and honeycomb relative density. Beam specimens are tested in 3-point bending. The experimental data agree satisfactorily with the theoretical predictions. The effect of honeycomb direction is also examined. The concept of a failure mode map is extended to give a useful design tool for sandwich panels manufacturers and their customers.     

含泡沫铝芯的复合板弯曲疲劳行为的研究

应用表面位移原位分析技术对由泡沫金属铝芯和金属面板组成的三层复合板在循环弯曲载荷条件下的损伤行为进行了观察和研究。循环弯曲载荷条件下复合板失效的基本方式是表面凹陷（Indentation，ID）和泡沫铝内芯切断（Coreshear，CS）。凹陷型失效是与加载压头接触的复合板表面局部压缩密切相关，该处沿垂直方向的压缩应变最大。内芯切断型失效是泡沫铝内芯中切应变最大的区域发生的剪切破坏。在疲劳应力比R=0时，复合板凹陷型失效的疲劳极限高于内芯切断型失效的疲劳极限。     

加筋增强泡沫夹芯结构面内压缩与界面断裂性能试验

为解决复合材料泡沫夹芯结构面板局部屈曲与面芯脱粘的突出问题,提出了一种由筋条增强的玻璃纤维增强树脂基复合材料（GFRP）面板与泡沫芯层组合而成的新型夹芯结构。采用真空辅助树脂导入技术制备试验件,通过面内压缩与双悬臂梁试验,对比分析了加筋增强夹芯板与未加筋夹芯板的受力特性、失效模式和面芯粘结性能。面内压缩试验显示,与未加筋夹芯板相比,加筋增强夹芯板的失效模式由面板局部屈曲转化为面板压缩剪切破坏或整体屈曲,在GFRP材料使用量相同的情况下,试件长度为130 mm的加筋增强夹芯板平均失效荷载提高了40.87%,长度为190 mm试件提高了35.63%。双悬臂梁试验显示,加筋增强夹芯板的裂缝在发展过程中受到筋条与面板之间纤维丝搭接约束,改善了界面粘结性能,与未加筋夹芯板相比,其平均能量释放率提高了57.35%。     

Face/core interface fracture characterization of mixed mode bending sandwich specimens

Debonding of the core from the face sheets is a critical failure mode in sandwich structures. This paper presents an experimental study on face/core debond fracture of foam core sandwich specimens under a wide range of mixed mode loading conditions. Sandwich beams with E‐glass fibre face sheets and PVC H45, H100 and H250 foam core materials were evaluated. A methodology to perform precracking on fracture specimens in order to achieve a sharp and representative crack front is outlined. The mixed mode loading was controlled in the mixed mode bending (MMB) test rig by changing the loading application point (lever arm distance). Finite element analysis was performed to determine the mode‐mixity at the crack tip. The results showed that the face/core interface fracture toughness increased with increased mode II loading. Post failure analysis of the fractured specimens revealed that the crack path depends on the mode‐mixity at the crack tip, face sheet properties and core density.     

Debonding and crack kinking in foam core sandwich beams—II. Experimental investigation

Debonding and crack kinking in sandwich beams was experimentally examined, and also analyzed using the finite element method. Double cantilever beam (DCB) and shear fracture specimens employing aluminum facings bonded to a wide range of PVC and PMI foam cores using two types of adhesives were considered. It was found that the Young modulus of the core has a profound effect on the tendency of the facing/core interfacial crack to deflect (kink) into the core in DCB testing. In shear testing, crack kinking occurred for all core materials considered. The type of adhesive strongly influences the debond fracture resistance, but not the kink resistance and kink angle. The critical load for onset of kinking increased with increased core density. Finite element analysis of the fracture specimens enabled determination of mixed mode interfacial fracture toughness for the specimens that failed by debonding. For specimens that failed by kinking, interfacial stress intensity factors at the onset of kinking were determined. Measured kink angles compared favorably with kink angles calculated based on the interfacial stress intensity factors prior to kinking.     

齿板-玻璃纤维混合夹层结构弯曲性能试验

提出了一种齿板-玻璃纤维混合面板和泡沫芯材组成的新型混合夹层结构,齿板通过齿钉与泡沫芯材相连。该结构采用真空导入成型工艺制备,通过三点弯曲试验研究该结构在不同跨度以及不同芯材密度情况下的破坏模式和弯曲性能,并与普通泡沫夹层结构进行对比分析,同时探究了齿板对该结构界面性能的影响。结果表明:在泡沫芯材密度为35kg/m~3、80kg/m~3和150kg/m~3情况下,齿板-玻璃纤维混合泡沫夹层梁弯曲承载能力与普通泡沫夹层梁相比分别提高了168%、211%和258%,其界面剪切强度依次为0.09 MPa、0.21 MPa和0.45 MPa;随着芯材密度和跨度的变化,该结构主要产生芯材剪切和芯材凹陷两种破坏形态,齿板的嵌入有效抑制界面的剪切失效。另外,利用理论公式估算了试件受弯极限承载能力,理论值与实测值吻合较好。     

面板材料对泡沫铝夹芯梁抗冲击性能的影响

为考查泡沫铝夹芯梁面板材料对其抗冲击性能的影响,运用数值模拟方法计算了相同重量下面板材料分别为304#不锈钢、工业纯铝和HRB335级钢三种泡沫铝夹芯梁在不同冲量作用下的动力响应;分析了面板材料对泡沫铝夹芯梁跨中变形及芯材压缩应变的影响.结果显示,在冲量相同的情况下,面板材料对泡沫铝夹芯梁的抗冲击性能有一定的影响;爆炸...     

Failure initiation and propagation characteristics of honeycomb sandwich composites

The energy absorbed during the failure of a variety of structural shapes is influenced by material, geometry and the failure mode. Failure initiation and propagation of the honeycomb sandwich under loading involves not only non-linear behavior of the constituent materials, but also complex interactions between various failure mechanisms. Therefore, there is a need for an improved understanding of the material characteristics and energy absorption modes to facilitate the design of sandwich performance. In the present study, failure initiation and propagation characteristics of sandwich beams and panels subjected to quasi-static and impact loadings were investigated. Experimental studies involved a series of penetration and perforation tests on 2D beam and 3D panel configurations using a truncated cone impactor with impact velocities up to 10 m/s. Preliminary tests were also performed on the sandwich beams subjected to the three-point bending. Load-carrying, energy-absorbing characteristics and failure mechanisms under quasi-static and impact loading were determined. Dominant deformation modes involved upper skin compression failure in the vicinity of the indenter, core crushing and lower skin tensile failure.     

Compressive fracture features of syntactic foams-microscopic examination

Syntactic foams made by mechanical mixing of polymeric binder and hollow spherical particles are used as core materials in sandwich structured materials. Low density of such materials makes them suitable for weight sensitive applications. The present study correlates various postcompression microscopic observations in syntactic foams to the localized events leading the material to fracture. Depending upon local stress conditions the fracture features of syntactic foam are identified for various modes of fracture such as compressive, shear and tensile. Microscopic observations were also taken at sandwich structures containing syntactic foam as core materials and also at reinforced syntactic foam containing glass fibers. These observations provide conclusive evidences for the fracture features generated under different failure modes. All the microscopic observations were taken using scanning electron microscope in secondary electron mode.     

Non-linear indentation behavior of foam core sandwich composite materials—A 2D approach

Light weight high performance sandwich composite materials have been used more and more frequently in various load bearing applications in recent decades. However, sandwich materials with thin composite face sheets and a low density foam core are notoriously sensitive to failure by localized external loads. These loads induce significant local deflections of the loaded face sheet into the core of the sandwich composite material, thus causing high stress concentrations. As a result, a complex multiaxial stressed and strained state can be obtained in the area of localized load application. Another important consequence of the highly localized external loads is the formation of a residual dent in the face sheet (a geometrical imperfection) that can reduce significantly the post-indentation load bearing capacity of the sandwich structure.This paper addresses the elastic–plastic response of sandwich composite beams with a foam core to local static loading. The study deals with a 2D configuration, where a sandwich beam is indented by a steel cylinder across the whole width of the specimen. The ABAQUS finite element package is used to model the indentation response of the beams. Both physical and geometrical non-linearities are taken into account. The plastic response of the foam core is modeled by the ¹CRUSHABLE FOAM and the ¹CRUSHABLE FOAM HARDENING option of the ABAQUS code. The purpose of the numerical modeling is to develop correct 2D simulations of the non-linear response in order to further understand the failure modes caused by static indentation. In order to verify the finite element model, indentation tests are performed on sandwich composite beams using a cylindrical indentor. The numerical results show good agreement with experimental test data.     

Investigation on the square cell honeycomb structures under axial loading

To investigate into the collapse of a sandwich panel or beam with a square cell honeycomb, the novel plate model and beam model are developed according to the cross-sectional symmetry of the cell. The treble series solution of buckling mode is presented, and the formulas of critical compressive stress on skins are derived. The honeycomb sandwich panels are classified as thin, medium and thick plates based on their failure forms. It is found that the different kinds of cells have different buckling modes and different parameter governing equations. A new iterative optimization design method for a square honeycomb sandwich panel is developed and the curves of critical compressive stresses with geometrical parameters are provided in details. Finally, the 3D finite element numeric simulations have validated the formulas presented by this paper. Our study reveals some mechanical characteristics of the square honeycomb sandwich structures.     

Insight into the shear behaviour of composite sandwich panels with foam core

While sandwich construction offers well-known advantages for high stiffness with light weight, the problem of designing the sandwich structure to withstand shear loading remains an important problem. This problem is more difficult with lower stiffness foam cores under high shear loading because the core is typically the weakest component of the structure and is the first one to fail in shear under the assuming of perfect contact between the skin and the foam core. In the present study, the shear response of the composite sandwich panels with Polyvinylchloride (PVC) foam core was investigated. The PVC H100 foam core is sandwiched between Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) skins using epoxy resin to build a high performance sandwich panel to be investigated. Experiments have been carried out to characterise the mechanical response of the constituent materials under tension, compression and shear loading. Static shear tests for the sandwich panel reveal that the main failure mode is the delamination between the skin and the core rather than shearing the core itself due to the considerable value of the shear strength of the PVC foam. The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of the sandwich structure shows that shear response and failure mode can be predicted, but that accurate predictions require a consideration of the non-linear response of the foam core. The results have a direct application in predicting the ability of the sandwich structure to withstand the shear loading.     

高比强高孔隙率泡沫铝合金三明治梁

研究了高比强泡沫铝合金和泡沫纯铝的单向压缩和剪切性能,对以高比强泡沫铝合金为夹芯的三明治梁失效模式的尺寸范围和承载能力进行了理论计算,结果与实验结果符合得很好.给出了泡沫铝合金三明治梁的设计方法,表明在较小的设计载荷下,三明治梁是以刚度作为设计的控制条件;在较大的设计载荷下,以相对强度为设计的控制条件.泡沫铝合金三明治梁与泡沫纯铝三明治梁的对比表明,在刚度设计控制条件下,前者的刚度是后者的1.00～1.185倍.在强度设计控制条件下,剪切破坏和压凹破坏失效模式下的泡沫铝合金三明治梁比泡沫纯铝三明治梁的极限强度分别提高57%～180%和90%～220%.     

The response of clamped sandwich beams subjected to shock loading

The dynamic response of monolithic and sandwich beams made from stainless steel is determined by loading the end-clamped beams at mid-span with metal foam projectiles. The sandwich beams comprise stainless-steel pyramidal cores (with no axial stretch resistance), stainless-steel corrugated cores (with a high stretch resistance) and an aluminium alloy metal foam. High-speed photography is used to measure the transient transverse deflection of the beams. The resistance to shock loading is measured by the permanent transverse deflection at the mid-span of the beams for a fixed magnitude of projectile momentum and mass of beam. It is found that the sandwich beam with the pyramidal core was the weakest of the sandwich beams, but all sandwich beams had a higher shock resistance, then the monolithic beam. For each type of beam, the dependence of transverse deflection upon the magnitude of the projectile momentum is measured. A comparison of the measurements is made with analytical predictions for both impulsive and finite pressure loading. It is found that the impulsive loading analysis over-predicts the deflections of both the monolithic and sandwich beams. The finite pressure analysis, which considers the transient nature of the loading pressure provided by the foam projectile, can accurately predict the measured transverse deflection.