Silver‐loaded lyocell fibers modified by tempo‐mediated oxidation

The purpose of this research was to accomplish antimicrobial properties in lyocell fibers by Ag⁺ ions sorption from aqueous silver nitrate solution. Sorption properties of lyocell fibers were improved by the selective TEMPO‐mediated oxidation, i.e. oxidation with sodium hypochlorite and catalytic amount of sodium bromide and 2,2,6,6‐tetramethylpiperidine‐1‐oxy radical (TEMPO). The most suitable experimental conditions for the selective TEMPO‐mediated oxidation were determined by changing oxidation conditions: concentration of sodium hypochlorite, as well as duration of sorption. The obtained results showed that the maximum sorption capacity (0.809 mmol of Ag⁺ ions per gram of fibers) of modified lyocell fibers was obtained for the sample modified with 4.84 mmol NaClO per gram of cellulose, during 1 h. The antifungal activity of the TEMPO‐oxidized lyocell fibers with silver ions against fungi from the Candida family, Candida albicans (ATCC 24433), and antibacterial activity against two strains: Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) and Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) were confirmed in vitro. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Structure and properties of cellulose fibers from ionic liquids

1‐Butyl‐3‐methylimidazolium chloride ([BMIM]Cl) was used as a solvent for cellulose, the rheological behavior of the cellulose/[BMIM]Cl solution was studied, and the fibers were spun with a dry‐jet–wet‐spinning process. In addition, the structure and properties of the prepared cellulose fibers were investigated and compared with those of lyocell fibers. The results showed that the cellulose/[BMIM]Cl solution was a typical shear‐thinning fluid, and the temperature had little influence on the apparent viscosity of the solution when the shear rate was higher than 100 s^?1. In addition, the prepared fibers had a cellulose II crystal structure just like that of lyocell fibers, and the orientation and crystallinity of the fibers increased with the draw ratio increasing, so the mechanical properties of the fibers improved. Fibers with a tenacity of 4.28cN/dtex and a modulus of 56.8 cN/dtex were prepared. Moreover, the fibers had a smooth surface as well as a round and compact structure, and the dyeing and antifibrillation properties of the fibers were similar to those of lyocell fibers; however, the color of these dyed fibers was brighter than that of lyocell fibers. Therefore, these fibers could be a new kind of environmentally friendly cellulose fiber following lyocell fibers. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Physical properties of lyocell fibers spun from different solution‐dope phases

The hydration number (n) of NMMO hydrates has a significant effect on the rheological properties and phase of the cellulose solutions in the hydrates. The physical properties of the lyocell fibers spun from the cellulose solutions in NMMO hydrates with different values of n were investigated relative to the phase of the solution dope. NMMO hydrate with n = 1.1 could not fully dissolve cellulose, resulting in a heterogeneous solution. NMMO hydrate with n = 0.72 produced a mesophase solution that exhibited a good spinnability. When NMMO hydrates with n = 0.72 and 1.0 were used, the lyocell fiber spun from 15 wt % solution dope gave higher tensile strength than that spun from 12 wt % solution dope. NMMO hydrate with n = 1.0 produced a lyocell fiber whose tensile strength was slightly affected by spin–draw ratio but the tensile strength of the lyocell fiber prepared from NMMO hydrate with n = 0.72 was monotonically increased with increasing spin–draw ratio. Further, the latter gave higher birefringence. The lyocell fiber spun from 15 wt % solution in NMMO hydrate with n = 0.72 produced finely fibrillated structures. When treated with sonic wave the lyocell fiber prepared from 15 wt % cellulose (DP_w 940) solution in NMMO hydrate with n = 0.72 yielded the most serious fibrillation on the fiber surface. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 83: 981–989, 2002     

Effect of the dissolution time on the structure and properties of lyocell‐fabric‐based all‐cellulose composite laminates

In this study, all‐cellulose composite laminates were prepared from lyocell fabric with ionic liquid (1‐butyl‐3‐methyl imidazolium chloride), a conventional hand layup method, and compression molding. Eight layers of lyocell fabric, which were impregnated with ionic liquid, were stacked symmetrically and hot‐pressed under compression molding for various times; this resulted in the partial dissolution of the surface of the lyocell fibers. The dissolved cellulose held the laminas together and resulted in a consolidated laminate. Finally, the prepared laminate was impregnated in water to remove the ionic liquid and to regenerate a matrix phase in situ; this was followed by hot‐press drying. Optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy studies were used to analyze composite structures. With increasing dissolution time, the void content in the composites decreased, and the interlaminar adhesion improved. For LC‐2h and LC‐3h, the highest tensile strength and modulus values obtained were 48.2 MPa and 1.78 GPa, respectively. For LC‐4h, the highest flexural strength and modulus values obtained were 53.96 MPa and 1.2 GPa, respectively. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 43398.     

Microscopic analysis of aroma chemical distribution on fibers. I. cis‐3‐hexenyl salicylate

The distribution of aroma chemical cis‐3‐hexenyl salicylate, on both longitudinal and cross‐sectional fiber directions, was identified through backscattered electron microscopy and X‐ray microanalysis including X‐ray spectrum and X‐ray map. Three fibers—cotton, lyocell, and polyester [poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)]—were used as substrates to evaluate the influence of fiber physical/chemical nature on the distribution of cis‐3‐hexenyl salicylate. It was found that the distribution of cis‐3‐hexenyl salicylate on the external and internal fiber surfaces correlated strongly with the chemical structure, roughness, and both pore and capillary structure of the textiles. cis‐3‐Hexenyl salicylate distributed through the whole cotton fiber cross section with higher concentrations in lumen and crenulations, whereas it distributed relatively uniformly in the surface and cross section of lyocell fiber. This is believed to relate to the macro‐ and micropores, macroscopic roughness, and the presence of a larger number of polar groups for these cellulose fibers. In contrast, cis‐3‐hexenyl salicylate accumulated at a few spots on the fiber surfaces of PET and in interfiber spaces of closely packed fibers, attributed to lower polarity, round cross‐sectional shape, smooth surfaces, and fewer voids of the PET fiber structure. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 91: 3557–3564, 2004     

Cellulose-based fibers from liquid crystalline solutions. III. Processing and morphology of cellulose and cellulose hexanoate esters

Cellulose and a cellulose hexanoate ester (DS 0.69) exhibited liquid crystalline behavior in dimethylacetamide/lithium chloride and dimethylacetamide, respectively. The experimentally observed critical volume fraction (V^c_p) of cellulose was lower than that predicted by Flory's theory, whereas the experimental and theoretical values of V^c_p were within 70% of prediction for cellulose hexanoate. The V^c_p value obtained for cellulose hexanoate was lower than that previously reported for cellulose acetate butyrate with a maximum degree of butyration (CAB-3). This indicates that bulky substituents may lower V^c_p values. Fibers were spun from isotropic and anisotropic solutions of cellulose and cellulose hexanoate by a dry jet/wet spinning method. There was an increase in mechanical properties through the isotropic to anisotropic transition with moduli reaching 152 g/d (20.8 GPa) for cellulose fibers. The formation of cellulose fibers with high modulus at large extrusion rates and large takeup speeds (draw ratio) is explained with molecular organization prior to coagulation. This unexpected enhancement is attributed to the air gap that exists in the dry jet/wet spinning process. Similar improvements were not observed for cellulose hexanoate fibers. This is explained with incomplete development of liquid crystalline structure at the solution concentrations from which the fibers were spun. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Cellulosic nanocomposites. I. Thermally deformable cellulose hexanoates from heterogeneous reaction

Partially derivatized cellulose esters were prepared from dissolving‐grade wood pulp fibers by reaction with a mixed p‐toluene sulfonic/hexanoic anhydride system in a nonswelling (cyclohexane‐based) reaction medium. The partially derivatized pulp fibers, which failed to undergo a significant change in shape or appearance during the modification, proved to be resistant to swelling (in water), were thermally deformable, and retained their biodegradability. Because X‐ray diffractometry provided evidence for the presence of unsubstituted, ordered cellulose with cellulose I morphology, the thermally reshaped and consolidated sheets were found to consist of commingled mixtures of cellulose esters and cellulose I. The transparent or semitransparent consolidated sheets (depending on the degree of substitution) were found to represent composites in which cellulose I serves as a discontinuous inclusion that reinforces a continuous, partially ordered cellulose ester matrix. The composites, which revealed cohesive or adhesive failure at rupture, depending on the degree of substitution, had modulus values and tensile strengths as high as 1.3 GPa and 25 MPa, respectively. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 78: 2242–2253, 2000     

Characterization of Poly (Methyl Acrylate) Grafted Bleached Sulfite Pulp Fibers using AFM,AEM, EDS and STEM

Abstract

Sulfite pulp fibers were grafted by poly (methyl acrylate) at a low‐consistency (1% pulp consistency) and medium‐consistency (10% pulp consistency). It is of fundamental interest to determine the distribution of the polymer chains obtained at different fiber concentrations during grafting. In this study, modern analytical tools such as atomic force microscope (AFM), energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS), and scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) were used for investigating the distribution of the polymer chains in the fiber matrix. AFM images in tapping mode showed that the fiber surface was covered with in‐situ generated polymers. The X‐ray mapping of Na in the cross‐section of the hydrolyzed grafted fibers by using EDS in combination with Na line scans by STEM showed that the distribution of poly (methyl acrylate) was affected by the pulp consistency during grafting; at a medium‐consistency condition the outer region of the fiber structure had a higher polymer concentration than the inner region. On the other hand, at a low‐consistency condition, grafting occurred uniformly across the fiber wall structure.     

Preparation and properties of chemical cellulose from ascidian tunic and their regenerated cellulose fibers

Chemical cellulose (dissolving pulp) was prepared from ascidian tunic by modified paper‐pulp process (prehydrolysis with acidic aqueous solution of H₂SO₄, digestion with alkali aqueous solution of NaOH/Na₂S, bleaching with aqueous NaOCl solution, and washing with acetone/water). The α‐ cellulose content and the degree of polymerization (DPw) of the chemical cellulose was about 98 wt % and 918, respectively. The Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) whiteness of the chemical cellulose was about 98%. From the X‐ray diffraction patterns and ¹³C‐NMR spectrum, it was found that the chemical cellulose obtained here has cellulose Iβ crystal structure. A new regenerated cellulose fiber was prepared from the chemical cellulose by dry–wet spinning using N‐methylmorpholine‐ N‐oxide (NMMO)/water (87/13 wt %) as solvent. The new regenerated cellulose fiber prepared in this study has a higher ratio of wet‐to‐dry strength (<0.97) than commercially regenerated cellulose fibers. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 85: 1634–1643, 2002.     

Functionally modified,melt‐electrospun thermoplastic polyurethane mats for wound‐dressing applications

The electrospinning of a polymer melt is an interesting process for medical applications because it eliminates the cytotoxic effects of solvents in the electrospinning solution. Wound dressings made from thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), particularly as a porous structured electrospun membrane, are currently the focus of scientific and commercial interest. In this study, we developed a functionalized fibrillar structure as a novel antibacterial wound‐dressing material with the melt‐electrospinning of TPU. The surface of the fibers was modified with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and silver nanoparticles (nAg's) to improve their wettability and antimicrobial properties. TPU was processed into a porous, fibrous network of beadless fibers in the micrometer range (4.89 ± 0.94 μm). The X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy results and scanning electron microscopy images confirmed the successful incorporation of nAg's onto the surface of the fiber structure. An antibacterial test indicated that the PEG‐modified nAg‐loaded TPU melt‐electrospun structure had excellent antibacterial effects against both a Gram‐positive Staphylococcus aureus strain and Gram‐negative Escherichia coli compared to unmodified and PEG‐modified TPU fiber mats. Moreover, modification with nAg's and PEG increased the water‐absorption ability in comparison to unmodified TPU. The cell viability and proliferation on the unmodified and modified TPU fiber mats were investigated with a mouse fibroblast cell line (L929). The results demonstrate that the PEG‐modified nAg‐loaded TPU mats had no cytotoxic effect on the fibroblast cells. Therefore, the melt‐electrospun TPU fiber mats modified with PEG and nAg have the potential to be used as antibacterial, humidity‐managing wound dressings. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2014 , 131, 40132.     

Effect of Compound Surface Treatment on the Performance of Poly(butylene succinate)/Chemithermomechanical Pulp Fiber Composites

Chemithermomechanical pulp fiber was pretreated by alkali solution to alter the surface characteristics of fibers. The untreated and treated fibers were used to prepare poly(butylene succinate)/chemithermomechanical pulp fiber composites with or without the incorporation of cellulose fatty acid ester (hydroxyethyl cellulose lauric acid ester). X-ray photoelectron spectrum analysis shows that the O/C ratio on the fiber surface increased after alkali treatment, indicating that part of lignin was removed during alkali treatment process. Scanning electron microcopy images indicate that the fiber surface was changed to rough after alkali treatment. The modification effect of hydroxyethyl cellulose lauric acid ester reflects as the improvement of fiber order in matrix, together with the enhancement of interfacial bonding, whereas, the modification effect of alkali treatment is mainly due to the enhancement of interfacial bonding. The integrated mechanical properties of composite prepared by alkali-treated fibers are superior to those of composite prepared by hydroxyethyl cellulose lauric acid ester-treated fibers. The combination of these two modification methods favors the enhancement of tensile and impact strengths of composite. However, in comparison with the composite prepared only by alkali treatment, the flexural strength and modulus would be despaired in a certain degree. When fibers were alkali treated, the shear viscosity of composite exhibited a larger increase, whereas the shear viscosity of composite prepared fibers with hydroxyethyl cellulose lauric acid ester treatment exhibits a slight decrease.     

Synthesis and characterization of polypropylene reinforced with cellulose I and II fibers

Recently, cellulose fiber–thermoplastic composites have played an important role in some applications. Plastics reinforced with cellulose and natural fibers have been widely studied. However, composites with regenerated cellulose have rarely been investigated. In this study, the lyocell fiber of Lenzing AG (cellulose II) and its raw material a bleached hardwood pulp (cellulose I) were used as reinforcement materials. The mechanical and thermal properties of polypropylene (PP) reinforced with pulp and lyocell fibers were characterized and compared with regard to the content of the fiber and the addition of maleated polypropylene (MAPP). PPs with cellulose I or II as a reinforcement material had similar mechanical properties. However, when MAPP was used as coupling agent, the mechanical properties of the composites were different. The crystallinity of the composites were determined by differential scanning calorimetry. Cellulose I (pulp) promoted the crystallization of PP, whereas cellulose II did not. MAPP reduced this effect in cellulose I fibers, but it induced crystallization when cellulose II (lyocell) was used as a reinforcement material. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 101: 364–369, 2006     

Tubular multi‐bilayer polysaccharide biofilms on ultra‐thin cellulose fibers

Multiple bilayered polysaccharide biofilms have been assembled by electrostatic layer‐by‐layer (LBL), alternating deposition of cationic chitosan (CS, M_v = 405 kDa) and anionic dextran sulfate (DXS, M_w = 500 kDa) onto ultra‐fine cellulose (CELL) and partially hydrolyzed cellulose acetate fibers with diameters ranging from 350 to 410 nm. While the surfaces of partially hydrolyzed (degrees of substitution of 1.14 or 0.2) and CELL fibers were equally hydrophilic, higher surface charges on the more hydrolyzed fibers afford thicker bilayers. The elestrostatic interactions between CS and DXS were enhanced by the presence of NaCl in the dipping and rinsing solutions to allow uniform deposition of sequential polysaccharide bilayers. At 0.25M NaCl, each CS/DXS bilayer averaged 6.4 to 9.0 nm thick with the total thickness of the five bilayer (CS/DXS)₅ varied from 64 to 77 nm. The CS/DXS bilayers exhibited much reduced BET surface area and pore volume indicating that these polysaccharides were much more densely packed on the fully hydrolyzed CELL fibers. The findings proofed the concept that long chain polysaccharide electrolytes can be self‐assembled as nanometer scale tubular bilayers on ultra‐fine cellulose fibers to afford wholly polysaccharidic fibrous architecture. The electrolytic nature, chemical reactivity, and structural versatility of these ultra‐high specific surface polysaccharides are advantageous and can be further tuned to serve biological functions and for biomedical applications. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Effect of oligosaccharide accumulated in the coagulation bath on the lyocell fiber process during industrial production

In this article, we investigate the effects of oligosaccharide accumulated in the coagulation bath on the lyocell fiber process during industrial production. The research method consists of three parts. First, high‐performance liquid chromatography is used to analyze the monosaccharide composition of lyocell fibers and their pulp materials to determine whether the hemicelluloses in pulp material can be precipitated from the coagulation bath and then regenerated into lyocell fibers. Second, we establish a method for measuring the total sugar mixture content in the coagulation bath, which is a necessary technique during the industrial production of lyocell fibers. Third, we study the effect of oligosaccharide accumulated in the coagulation bath on the mechanical properties and supermolecular structure of lyocell fibers through a simulation experiment. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

Process and fiber spinning studies for the cellulose/paraformaldehyde/dimethyl sulfoxide system

A cellulose pulp of about 550 D.P. was readily dissolved in a combination of (CH₂O)x/DMSO to afford an initial 6/6/88 cellulose/(CH₂O)x/DMSO composition solution. The concentration of formaldehyde was found to be a function of solution heating time and temperature. The solutions were microscopically free of gels and undissolved cellulose fibers. Cellulosic articles such as fibers and films are easily regenerated from these cellulose solutions in the presence of coagulants such as methanol or water. Fibers with high wet modulus, intermediate tenacity, and low elongations were produced from these regenerations systems. Fibers have been spun with conditioned and wet tenacities as high as 2.9 and 2.1 g/d, respectively, with wet modulus (at 5% elongation) as high as 1.3 g/d and solubility in 6.5% NaOH in the low range of 3.0%–15%. In many respects, these fibers are comparable to those produced in the viscose process. However, the low elongations of these fibers probably would not permit normal textile processing. The cellulose/(CH₂O)x/DMSO solutions were modified with compounds containing reactive N? H functional groups which are known to react with excess formaldehyde to yield the corresponding N-methylol derivatives. However, the resulting fiber physical properties were not significantly improved compared to those obtained from unmodified cellulose solutions. Addition of acrylic acid derivatives such as methyl acrylate, butyl methacrylate, or acrylonitrile to the cellulose solutions did not result in the formation of the expected 1,4-type adducts.     

Modification of regenerated cellulose membrane by impregnation of silver nanocrystal clusters

Regenerated cellulose forms a very important class of basic material with diverse applications because of its hydrophilicity and insolubility in water. Thus, one of the applications of regenerated cellulose is used to fabricate membranes. However, short operational lifetime is one of the disadvantages of the regenerated cellulose. In this research, surface modification of the cellophane membrane was carried out by silver nanoclusters. Silver colloids were formed in situ by chemical and photochemical reduction, and then, silver particles were deposited uniformly onto the surface of the cellophane membrane. The maximum amount of silver deposition was found to be 2.55% by weight in this modification. The modified and unmodified membranes were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis to indicate silver nanocrystalline cluster particles on the modified membrane. SEM images indicate well-dispersed silver particles with an average size of 0.65 μm on the membrane. XRD patterns showed that the size of the silver crystals was 3.9 nm. The surface properties of modified and unmodified membranes were studied by the contact angle. Water absorption, oxidative resistance, salt permeability, and thermal stability were investigated. This study revealed that the modified membrane is more resistant against the oxidative cleavage than the unmodified one moreover, the salt permeability increased after the treatment. © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2020 , 137, 48292.     

Novel regenerated cellulose fibers from rice straw

Regenerated cellulose fibers from rice straws with a diameter of 10 to 25 μm and initial modulus of 11 to 13 GPa were prepared by wet spinning in rice straw/N‐methylmorpholine‐N‐oxide (MMNO) solution. X‐ray diffraction analysis indicates that the rice straw regenerated fibers are classified as cellulose (II). This observation indicates a potential utility of rice straw as an alternative to wood pulp as a cellulose‐based fiber material. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 82: 1705–1708, 2001     

Surface chemical modification of natural cellulose fibers

Simple esterification and etherification reactions were applied to steam‐exploded Flax (Linum usitatissimum) with the aim of changing the surface properties through modification of fiber surface chemistry. Native and chemically modified cellulose fibers were characterized in terms of thermal stability, surface chemistry, morphology, and crystal structure. Independent of the substituent nature, chemically modified fibers exhibited a thermal stability comparable to that of native cellulose. Introduction of the desired chemical groups at the fiber surface was demonstrated by TOF‐SIMS analysis, whereas FTIR showed that the substitution reaction involved only a small fraction of the cellulose hydroxyls. No change of the native crystalline structure of cellulose fibers was caused by chemical modification, except in the case where ether substitution was carried out in water‐isopropanol medium. Cellulose fibers with unchanged structure and morphology and carrying at the surface the desired chemical groups were obtained for reinforcing applications in polymer composites. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 83: 38–45, 2002     

Mechanical properties and biodegradability of green composites based on biodegradable polyesters and lyocell fabric

Green composites composed of regenerated cellulose (lyocell) fabric and biodegradable polyesters [poly(3‐hydroxybutyrate‐co‐3‐hydroxyvarelate) (PHBV), poly(butylene succinate) (PBS), and poly(lactic acid) (PLA)] were prepared by compression‐molding method. The tensile moduli and strength of all the biodegradable polyester/lyocell composites increased with increasing fiber content. When the obtained PLA/lyocell composites were annealed at 100°C for 3 h, the tensile strength and moduli were lowered despite the increase of degree of crystallization of the PLA component. The SEM observation of the composites revealed that the surface of the annealed composite has many cracks caused by the shrinkage of the PLA adhered to lyocell fabric. Multilayered PLA/lyocell laminate composites showed considerably higher Izod impact strength than PLA. As a result of the soil viral test, although the order of higher weight loss for the single substance was lyocell > PHBV > PBS > PLA, the biodegradability of the green composites did not reflect the order of a single substance because of the structural defect of the composite. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 92: 3857–3863, 2004     

Preparation of microwave‐assisted polymer‐grafted softwood kraft pulp fibers. Enhanced water absorbency

A wood pulp cellulose‐based hydrogel material was prepared with poly(methyl vinyl ether‐co‐maleic acid) (PMVEMA), polyethylene glycol (PEG), and softwood ECF kraft pulp via microwave and thermal esterification and compared via hydrogel absorption and retention of water and 0.10M NaCl. The microwave initiated reaction time was optimized to 105 s at 1600 W based on maximum water absorption of 96 g/g of the 49% PMVEMA pulp hydrogels. The influence of reaction variables such as pulp fiber size and the weight ratios of PMVEMA to pulp were investigated. The maximum water absorbency of the milled pulp fibers microwave initiated products was 151 g/g, whereas the maximum water absorbency of the milled pulp fibers thermally initiated hydrogels was 198 g/g. In addition, the microwave initiated hydrogels retained a maximum of 67% of absorbed water after centrifugation at 770 rpm for 10 min, whereas the thermally initiated hydrogels retained a maximum of 49% of water absorbed. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used to confirm the esterification of the PMVEMA with the pulp cellulose. Microwave initiated crosslinking successfully produced a pulp hydrogel with a shorter reaction time and comparable or improved water absorption and retention properties when compared with the traditional thermally crosslinked pulp hydrogel system. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011