Synthesis of polymer‐grafted natural rubbers by radical photopolymerization of vinyl monomers initiated from the rubber chains

The synthesis of polymer‐grafted natural rubbers (NRs) was considered through photopolymerization of vinyl monomers initiated from N,N‐diethyldithiocarbamate groups previously introduced onto cis 1,4‐polyisoprene units of NR chains. The development of the procedure was made with methyl methacrylate (MMA) as monomer. First, initiation of MMA photopolymerization was tested using a model molecule of the N,N‐diethyldithiocarbamate‐functionalized 1,4‐polyisoprene unit to verify the feasibility of the procedure considered. Then, MMA polymerization was successfully initiated from N,N‐diethyldithiocarbamate‐functionalized NR backbone used as macroinitiator, and the conditions of grafting were optimized. It was shown that MMA grafting could occur either in monomer medium, in solution in toluene, and in latex medium, and that the quantities of homopolymer formed were still low. Thereafter, grafting studies were performed with other vinyl monomers (styrene, methacrylonitrile, acrylamide, acrylic acid) showing that grafting efficiency depends essentially on the nature of the monomer. The method developed here was shown particularly well adapted for the synthesis of polymer‐grafted NR with monomers of low polarity. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

Novel synthesis of poly(methyl methacrylate) brush encapsulated silica particles

Silica (SiO₂)‐crosslinked polystyrene (PS) particles possessing photofunctional N,N‐diethyldithiocarbamate (DC) groups on their surface were prepared by the free‐radical emulsion copolymerization of a mixture of SiO₂ (diameter = 20 nm), styrene, divinyl benzene, 4‐vinylbenzyl N,N‐diethyldithiocarbamate (VBDC), and 2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate with a radical initiator under UV irradiation. In this copolymerization, the inimer VBDC had the formation of a hyperbranched structure by a living radical mechanism. The particle sizes of such core–shell structures [number‐average particle diameter (D_n) = 35–40 nm] were controlled by the variation of the feed amounts of the monomers and surfactant, or emulsion system. The size distributions were relatively narrow (weight‐average particle diameter/D_n ≈ 1.05). These particles had DC groups on their surface. Subsequently, poly(methyl methacrylate) brush encapsulated SiO₂ particles were synthesized by the grafting from a photoinduced atom transfer radical polymerization approach of methyl methacrylate initiated by SiO₂‐crosslinked PS particles as a macroinitiator. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008     

Architecture of colloidal crystals constructed by silica hybrid nanoparticles

Silica (SiO₂)‐crosslinked polystyrene (PS) particles possessing photofunctional N,N‐diethyldithiocarbamate (DC) groups on their surface were prepared by the free‐radical emulsion copolymerization of a mixture of SiO₂ (diameter D_n = 192 nm), styrene, divinyl benzene, 4‐vinylbenzyl N,N‐diethyldithiocarbamate (VBDC), and 2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate with a radical initiator under UV irradiation. In this copolymerization, the inimer VBDC had the formation of a hyperbranched structure by a living radical mechanism. These particles had DC groups on their surface. Subsequently, poly(methyl methacrylate) brushes encapsulated SiO₂ particles were synthesized by the grafting from a photoinduced atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) approach of methyl methacrylate initiated by SiO₂‐crosslinked PS particles as a macroinitiator. We constructed the colloidal crystals using these photofunctional particles. Moreover, the SiO₂ particle array of colloidal crystals was locked by radical photopolymerization with vinyl monomer as a matrix. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Self‐driven graft polymerization of vinyl monomers on poultry chicken feathers in the absence of initiator/catalyst

An efficient and simple method for graft copolymerization of powdered chicken feather (CF) with vinyl monomers without any free radical initiator is reported. Various vinyl monomers such as glycidyl methacrylate (GMA), styrene (S), and methyl methacrylate (MMA); (20–60 wt % with respect to CF) were successfully grafted to chicken feather (CF) by using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS, 0.086–0.5 mmol) in the absence of any catalyst or initiator. Most likely, the hydrophilicity, hydrophobicity, and complex forming properties of chicken feather keratin with surfactant molecules were responsible for efficient grafting of polymers on CF surface. The effect of polymerization conditions, such as monomer concentration, temperature, and time of reaction, on the grafting parameters such as monomer conversion, grafting efficiency, and molar grafting ratio were studied. The described method showed a good potential of using low cost, easily accessible poultry chicken feathers as grafting material and self catalyzing agent for graft copolymerization with vinyl monomers to produce low cost commodity plastic for various end uses. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2017 , 134, 44645.     

Graft polymerization of vinyl acetate onto starch. Saponification to starch–g–poly(vinyl alcohol)

Graft polymerizations of vinyl acetate onto granular corn starch were initiated by cobalt-60 irradiation of starch-monomer-water mixtures, and ungrafted poly(vinylacetate) was separated from the graft copolymer by benzene extraction. Conversions of monomer to polymer were quantitative at a radiation dose of 1.0 Mrad. However, over half of the polymer was present as ungrafted poly-(vinyl acetate) (grafting efficiency less than 50%), and the graft copolymer contained only 34% grafted synthetic polymer (34% add-on). Lower irradiation doses produced lower conversions of monomer to polymer and gave graft copolymers with lower % add-on. Addition of minor amounts of acrylamide, methyl acrylate, and methacrylic acid as comonomers produced only small increases in % add-on and grafting efficiency. However, grafting efficiency was increased to 70% when a monomer mixture containing about 10% methyl methacrylate was used. Grafting efficiency could be increased to over 90% if the graft polymerization of vinyl acetate-methyl methacrylate was carried out near 0°C, although conversion of monomers to polymer was low and grafted polymer contained 40-50% poly(methyl methacrylate). Selected graft copolymers were treated with methanolic sodium hydroxide to convert starch–g–poly(vinyl acetate) to starch–g–poly(vinyl alcohol). The molecular weight of the poly(vinyl alcohol) moiety was about 30,000. The solubility of starch–g–poly(vinyl alcohol) in hot water was less than 50%; however, solubility could be increased by substituting either acid-modified or hypochlorite-oxidized starch for unmodified starch in the graft polymerization reaction. Vinyl acetate was also graft polymerized onto acid-modified starch which had been dispersed and partially solubilized by heating in water. A total irradiation dose of either 1.0 or 0.5 Mrad gave starch–g–poly(vinyl acetate) with about 35% add-on, and a grafting efficiency of about 40% was obtained. A film cast from a starch–g–poly(vinyl alcohol) copolymer in which homopolymer was not removed exhibited a higher ultimate tensile strength than a comparable physical mixture of starch and poly(vinyl alcohol).     

A method for the calculation of compositions of radical-chain copolymerizations

In this article the straight-line relationship between In A and B, where A and B denote the concentrations of the two types of monomers in any reaction period, is examined to exist in the radical copolymerizations of 1.02 ≥ r₁r₂ ≥ 0.25. Utilizing this observation, we propose an easy-to-use compositions calculation method in which a single empirical parameter is included. The method is derived without involving the constant monomer reactivity ratios assumption. The copolymerizations of styrene–methyl methacrylate vinyl chloride–vinyl acetate, methyl methacrylate–vinyl acetate, acrylic acid–acrylamide, methacrylic acid–methacrylamide, and sodium methacrylate–methacrylamide are investigated. The instantaneous and cumulative copolymer compositions and the residued monomer compositions computed by this proposal are in very good agreement with the experimental data.     

Graft copolymerization of methyl methacrylate and other vinyl monomers onto cotton fabric using ferrous cellulose thiocarbonate–N-bromosuccinimide redox initiation system

The cellulose thiocarbonate, in the fabric from, was treated first with a freshly prepared ferrous ammonium sulphate (FAS) solution. The sotreated fabric formed, with N-bromosuccinimide (NBS), an effective redox system capable of initiating grafting of methyl methacrylate (MMA) and other vinyl monomers onto the cotton fabric. The effect of the polymerization conditions the polymer criteria, namely, graft yeild, homopolymer, total conversion, and grafting efficiency, was studied. These polymer criteria were found to depend extensively upon concentrations of the Fe²⁺ ion (activator), NBS (initiator), and MMA; pH of the polymerization medium, and duration and temperature of polymerization. Based on detailed investigation of these factors, the optimal conditions for grafting were as follows: Fe²⁺, 1 × 10⁻³ mol/L; NBS, 1 × 10⁻² mol/L; MMA, 4%; pH, 2: polymerization time, 150 min; polymerization temperature, 60°C; material/liquor ratio, 1: 100. Under these optimal conditions, the rates of grafting of different vinyl monomers were in the following sequence: methyl methacrylate ≫ methyl acrylate > acrylonitrile. Other vinyl monomers namely, acrylic acid, and methacrylic acid have no ability to be grafted to the cellulosic fabric using the said redox system. A tentative mechanism for the polymerization reaction is suggested. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Greffages mecanochimiques sur le polychlorure de vinyle. II. Éatude des copolymègres grefféas

The copolymers obtained by mastication of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) in presence of methyl methacrylate and styrene monomers, and their fractions, were studied by using infrared spectroscopy, NMR, and flash pyrolysis. The degree of alternation between vinyl chloride and methyl methacrylate or styrene units is very low, and the copolymers are heterogeneous in composition. The results suggest that the mastication medium involves three kinds of domains: the inner part of the elementary grains of PVC is very slightly penetrated by the monomers. The polymerization initiated by the polymeric free radicals created by the rupture of bonds, begins in the surface layers of the grains and cause the formation of a true copolymer which accounts for 5–10% of the material. Light radicals arising from transfer reaction migrate into the third external domain which consists practically entirely of pure monomers and initiate polymerization.     

Hg(II) removal with polyacrylamide grafted crosslinked poly(vinyl chloride) beads via surface‐initiated controlled/“living” radical polymerization

Polyacrylamide grafted crosslinked poly (vinyl chloride) beads (PAM‐PVC) were prepared by the surface‐initiated controlled/“living” radical polymerization (SI‐CLRP) methodology from the crosslinked poly(vinyl chloride) beads with surface modification with diethyldithiocarbamyl groups under UV irradiation. The macroiniferter, diethyldithiocarbamyl crosslinked poly(vinyl chloride) beads (DEDTC‐PVC) were prepared by the reaction of the surface C? Cl groups with sodium N,N‐diethyl dithiocarbamate. The “grafting from” polymerization exhibited some “living” polymerization characteristics and the percentage of grafting (PG%) increased linearly with polymerizing time and achieved 47.6% after 6 h UV irradiation. The beaded polymer with polyacrylamide surface was also characterized with Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). Its adsorption property for Hg(II) ion was also investigated preliminarily. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102:3385–3390, 2006     

Effects of core‐shell particle growth manners on morphologies and properties of poly(vinyl chloride)/(methyl methacrylate–butadiene–styrene) blends

A series of methyl methacrylate‐butadiene‐styrene (MBS) core‐shell particles were synthesized by seeded emulsion polymerization. All the MBS particles are designed with the same defined chemical composition, which is a prerequisite for producing transparent blends with poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC). Three different growth manners of core‐shell particles: agglomeration of small styrene‐butadiene rubbers (SBRs) followed by styrene (ST) and methyl methacrylate (MMA) monomers grafting, agglomeration of small MBS particles and traditional MBS with single SBR rubber core, and ST/MMA shells are used. The effects of growth manners of MBS on the properties and deformation mechanism of PVC/MBS blends are studied. It is found that all the MBS particles can toughen the PVC matrix effectively, but different deformation modes are observed: cavitation in large particles, debonding at the PVC/MBS interface, rubber cavitation, and clusters of voids, respectively. In addition, it is found that the stress‐whitening extent is associated with the deformation modes. J. VINYL ADDIT. TECHNOL., 22:37–42, 2016. © 2014 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Graft copolymerization of vinyl monomers onto silk fibers initiated by a semiconductor‐based photocatalyst

Graft copolymerization onto silk (Bombyx mori) was carried out with vinyl monomers (methyl methacrylate and acrylamide) and initiated by a semiconductor‐based photocatalyst (cadmium sulfide). The utility of a semiconductor as an initiator in free‐radical photografting and the effects of ethylene glycol and triethylamine with cadmium sulfide on graft copolymerization were explored. Depending on the reaction conditions, 10–48% grafting with methyl methacrylate and 4–26% grafting with acrylamide were achieved. The reaction conditions were optimized, and the grafted fibers were characterized with scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetry analysis, and tensile strength measurements. The chemical resistance and water absorption of the grafted fibers were compared with those ungrafted fibers. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 2007     

‘Living’ free radical graft copolymers,II: Structure

Poly(vinyl chloride)–n-propyl xanthate (PVC–nPX) macroinitiators with 3 to 14 bonded xanthate groups per molecule were synthesized using PVC and potassium n-propyl xanthate. The reaction took place rapidly between 30 and 45°C. Ultraviolet (UV) and nuclear magnetic resonance studies confirmed the presence of xanthyl groups on these macroinitiators. The PVC–nPX macroinitiators were grafted by methyl methacrylate under UV irradiation of 254, 302 and 336 nm producing graft copolymers and homopolymers. The molecular weights increased with increasing conversion, which is consistent with a ‘living’ polymerization process. The active species in these polymerizations are believed to be macroradicals and xanthyl radicals.     

Narrow‐disperse or monodisperse crosslinked and functional core–shell polymer particles prepared by two‐stage precipitation polymerization

Narrow‐disperse and monodisperse cross‐linked core–shell polymer particles containing different functional groups, such as esters, hydroxyls, chloromethyls, carboxylic acids, amides, cyanos, and glycidyls, in the shell layers in the micrometer size range were prepared by a two‐stage precipitation polymerization in the absence of any stabilizer. Commercial divinylbenzene (DVB), containing 80% DVB, was precipitation polymerized in acetonitrile without any stabilizer as the first‐stage polymerization and was used as the core. Several functional monomers, including methyl methacrylate, ethyl methacrylate, butyl methacrylate, 2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate, glycidyl methacrylate, methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, butyl acrylate, t‐butyl acrylate, i‐octyl acrylate, acrylic acid, acrylamide, acrylonitrile, styrene, and p‐chloromethyl styrene, were incorporated into the shells during the second‐stage polymerization. The resulting core–shell polymer particles were characterized with scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 100: 1776–1784, 2006     

The influence of the internal structure of core–shell particles on poly(vinyl chloride)/(methyl methacrylate–butadiene–styrene) blends

Methyl methacrylate–butadiene–styrene (MBS) core–shell particles were prepared by grafting styrene and methyl methacrylate onto polybutadiene seeds via emulsion polymerization. All the MBS particles were designed with the same chemical composition, similar grafting degree but different internal structures. The difference in internal structure was realized by controlling the ratio of ‘external grafting’ and ‘internal grafting’ of styrene. The work focused on the influence of the internal structure of MBS core–shell particles on the properties of poly(vinyl chloride)/MBS blends. From transmission electron microscopy, three different internal structures were observed: rare sub‐inclusions, a large number of small sub‐inclusions and large sub‐inclusions. The results of dynamic mechanical analysis illustrated that the different internal structures greatly affected the glass transition temperature T_g of the rubber phase and the storage modulus of the core–shell particles. The notched Izod impact test results showed that the MBS with large sub‐inclusions had the lowest brittle–ductile transition temperature, while the transparency test revealed that the presence of sub‐inclusions in the rubbery phase reduced the transparency of the blend. Copyright © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry     

Self‐crosslinking and cocrosslinking with nitrile rubber of poly(vinyl chloride) with pendent N,N‐diethyldithiocarbamate group

In order to realize the self‐crosslinking and cocrosslinking of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) with nitrile‐butadiene rubber (NBR), PVC with pendent N,N‐diethyldithiocarbamate groups (PVC‐SR) was prepared from the reaction of PVC with sodium SR in butanone. The PVC‐SR was self‐crosslinked and the PVC‐SR/NBR blend was cocrosslinked under heating at 170°C. The effect of the degree of functionality of PVC‐SR on the torque, gel content, glass‐transition temperature, and tensile properties was investigated. The results showed that the crosslinking reaction did not occur for PVC, NBR, or the PVC/NBR blend. Introducing the SR groups into PVC caused the crosslinking reaction to occur and the high gel contents of the crosslinked samples were obtained in 15 min. The degree of crosslinking increased with the degree of functionality of PVC‐SR. The mechanism of the crosslinking reaction was discussed. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 80: 634–638, 2001     

Low protein fouling polypropylene membrane prepared by photoinduced reversible addition‐fragmentation chain transfer polymerization

In this study, 2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate and N‐isopropyl acrylamide was block grafted onto the polypropylene macroporous membrane surface by photo‐induced reversible addition‐fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) radical polymerization with benzyl dithiobenzoate as the RAFT agent. The degree of grafting of poly(2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate) on the membrane surface increased with UV irradiation time and decreased with the chain transfer agent concentration increasing. The poly(2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate)‐ grafted membranes were used as macro chain transfer agent for the further block graft copolymerization of N‐isopropyl acrylamide in the presence of free radical initiator. The degree of grafting of poly(N‐isopropyl acrylamide) increased with reaction time. Furthermore, the poly(2‐hydroxyethyl methacrylate)‐ grafted membrane with a degree of grafting of 0.48% (wt) showed the highest relative pure water flux and the best antifouling characteristics of protein dispersion. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012     

Polymerization of monomers initiated by silyl centers in SiO deposits prepared by pulsed laser ablation

Deposits from silicon monoxide prepared by pulsed laser ablation were allowed to react with acrylic and vinyl monomers—styrene, methyl methacrylate and 1,2 ethylene glycol dimethacrylate. It was revealed by means of FTIR, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), and NMR spectroscopies that silyl ?Si· reacts with monomer molecules and initiates the consecutive polymerization. Crosslinking is proved by the occurrence of bending δ(? CH₂) absorption peak at about 750 cm^?1 in FTIR spectra. Because of very low concentration of the propagating radical for styrene we used a radical scavenger N‐phenyl‐t‐butylnitrone for trapping. The measured EPR parameters were compared with the calculated ones. In case of styrene, NMR analysis manifested the presence of Si? C bonds in SiC_xO_y (x + y = 2) units, which can be taken as direct evidence of the reaction between silyl centers and monomer molecules. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 4488–4492, 2006     

Nano‐scaled ordering of hyperbranched and star‐hyperbranched polymers

Hyperbranched polystyrenes (HPS) were prepared by living radical polymerization of 4‐vinylbenzyl N,N‐diethyldithiocarbamate (VBDC) as an inimer under UV irradiation. These HPS exhibited large amounts of photofunctional diethyldithiocarbamate (DC) groups on their outside surfaces. We derived star‐HPS (SHPS) by grafting from such HPS macroinitiator with methyl methacrylate (MMA) or ethyl methacrylate (EMA). The ratios of radius of gyration to hydrodynamic radius R_g/R_h for HPS and SHPS in tetrahydrofuran (THF) were in the range of 0.74–0.90 and 1.05–1.12, respectively. HPS and SHPS behaved in a good solvent as hard and soft spheres, respectively. We demonstrated the structural ordering of both branched polymers in THF through small‐angle X‐ray scattering (SAXS), by varying the polymer concentration. As a result, HPS and SHPS formed face‐centered‐cubic (fcc) and body‐centered‐cubic (bcc) structures, respectively, near the overlap threshold (C*). © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 100: 3340–3345, 2006     

Preparation and polymerization of vinyl monomers containing a heterocyclic pendant group

New vinyl monomers having an isoxazole heterocyclic group were synthesized and were polymerized in dimethylformamide using azobisisobutyro-nitrile as a free radical initiator. The dependence of the rate of polymerization on monomer and initiator concentrations was determined, as well as the activation energy of polymerization. The addition of Lewis acid was found to affect the rate of polymerization. The prepared monomers were copolymerized with styrene, vinyl acetate, acrylonitrile and methyl methacrylate. The monomer re-activity ratios of all the systems were determined by linear and non-linear methods, and the Q and e values for the monomers were calculated by considering the four copolymerization systems in each case. ©1997 SCI     

Emulsifier‐minor emulsion copolymerization of BA‐MMA‐St‐MAA (or AA)‐N‐MA

A novel emulsion polymerization technique referred to as emulsifier‐minor emulsion polymerization was achieved by the copolymerization of methyl methacrylate, butyl acrylate, and styrene (MMA‐BA‐St) with a combination of water‐soluble ionic monomers [methacrylic acid (MAA) or acrylic acid (AA)] and nonionic monomers (N‐methylol acrylamide). In the technique, water‐soluble monomers play a crucial role in the stabilization of the latex particles as they can be bound to the particle surface and form a hydrate protective layer, which exhibits steric and/or electrostatic effects to prevent particle coagulation. The minor but over its critical micelle concentration emulsifier sodium alkylated diphenyl ether disulfonate (DSB) results in the nucleation of particles mainly by the micelle nucleation mechanism and thus determines the polymerization rate, the particle size, and the number. The film water resistance of the latices can be improved, and the foaming capacity of can be lowered by using technique instead of conventional emulsion polymerization. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 92: 2923–2929, 2004