Three‐dimensional Simulation of Thermosolutal Convection and Macrosegregation in Steel Ingots

Thermosolutal convection and macrosegregation formation during the solidification of steel ingots are numerically simulated in three dimensions. The simulation is based on a fully coupled model for mass, momentum, energy, and species conservation equations. The interdendritic flow in the mushy zone is governed by Darcy's law, and the permeability term is discretized using an interpolated liquid fraction method. The numerical results for a benchmark test of macrosegregation in a Pb‐Sn alloy are compared with experimental data taken from the literature. The present model is applied to simulate the solidification of industrial steel ingots. Preliminary predictions are obtained, including the positive segregation in the hot top, and the conically shaped negative segregation zone at the bottom of the ingot. The predicted variation of the segregation ratio in carbon along the vertical centreline of an ingot is compared with measurements, and generally good agreement is observed. Future attention should be paid to the precision of prediction by considering complex solidification issues, such as the sedimentation of free equiaxed grains and the formation of shrinkage cavity.     

过热度对GCr15SiMn轴承钢钢锭宏观偏析的影响

针对GCr15SiMn钢锭易出现宏观偏析凝固缺陷的问题,研究了过热度对GCr15SiMn钢锭宏观偏析的影响规律,使用真空感应炉冶炼1 kg的GCr15SiMn钢锭,通过酸侵试验与OPA技术分别测定了钢锭的凝固组织与宏观偏析,并结合ProCAST软件分析了钢液流动的规律。结果表明,高过热度(70 ℃)时,中心下部出现一定程度的负偏析,中心上部形成了较严重的正偏析同时伴随疏松;中过热度(50 ℃)时,疏松范围较小,碳元素分布较均匀;低过热度(20 ℃)与极低过热度(-20 ℃)时,疏松范围扩大,凝固初期是严重负偏析,凝固末期是严重正偏析。过热度影响偏析的机理为,高过热度时,凝固过程热对流较强,溶质上浮,钢锭上部的正偏析严重;当过热度过低时,初期凝固大量形核并保留在钢锭底部,在底部形成严重的负偏析。     

On the formation of macrosegregations in ingots

A new quenching technique for studying the formation of macrosegregations in ingots has been developed and used in a study of the formation ofA-segregations in ingots. The formation of a negative segregation in the bottom part of an ingot and a positive segregation in the top part have also been studied. It was found that the three types of macrosegregation phenomena could be explained by the occurrence of interdendritic convection during the solidification process.     

Computational Fluid Dynamics Modeling of Macrosegregation and Shrinkage in Large-Diameter Steel Roll Castings

Minimizing macrosegregation and shrinkage in large cast steel mill rolls challenges the limits of commercial foundry technology. Processing improvements have been achieved by balancing the total heat input of casting with the rate of heat extraction from the surface of the roll in the mold. A submerged entry nozzle (SEN) technique that injects a dilute alloy addition through a nozzle into the partially solidified net-shaped roll ingot can mitigate both centerline segregation and midradius channel segregate conditions. The objective of this study is to optimize the melt chemistry, solidification, and SEN conditions to minimize centerline and midradius segregation, and then to improve the quality of the transition region between the outer shell and the diluted interior region. To accomplish this objective, a multiphase, multicomponent computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code was developed for studying the macrosegregation and shrinkage under various casting conditions for a 65-ton, 1.6-m-diameter steel roll. The developed CFD framework consists of solving for the volume fraction of phases (air and steel mixture), temperature, flow, and solute balance in multicomponent alloy systems. Thermal boundary conditions were determined by measuring the temperature in the mold at several radial depths and height locations. The thermophysical properties including viscosity of steel alloy used in the simulations are functions of temperature. The steel mixture in the species-transfer model consists of the following elements: Fe, Mn, Si, S, P, C, Cr, Mo, and V. Density and liquidus temperature of the steel mixture are locally affected by the segregation of these elements. The model predictions were validated against macrosegregation measured from pieces cut from the 65-ton roll. The effect of key processing parameters such as melt composition and superheat of both the shell and the dilute interior alloy are addressed. The influence of mold type and thickness on macrosegregation and shrinkage also are discussed.     

Macrosegregation of Impurities in Directionally Solidified Silicon

Directional solidification of molten metallurgical-grade Si was carried out in a vertical Bridgman furnace. The effects of changing the mold velocity from 5 to 110 μm seconds^–1 on the macrosegregation of impurities during solidification were investigated. The macrostructures of the cylindrical Si ingots obtained in the experiments consist mostly of columnar grains parallel to the ingot axis. Because neither cells nor dendrites can be observed on ingot samples, the absence of precipitated particles and the fulfillment of the constitutional supercooling criterion suggest a planar solid–liquid interface for mold velocities ≤10 μm seconds^–1. Concentration profiles of several impurities were measured along the ingots, showing that their bottom and middle are purer than the metallurgical Si from which they solidified. At the ingot top, however, impurities accumulated, indicating the typical normal macrosegregation. When the mold velocity decreases, the macrosegregation and ingot purity increase, changing abruptly for a velocity variation from 20 to 10 μm seconds^–1. A mathematical model of solute transport during solidification shows that, for mold velocities ≥20 μm seconds^–1, macrosegregation is caused mainly by diffusion in a stagnant liquid layer assumed at the solid–liquid interface, whereas for lower velocities, macrosegregation increases as a result of more intense convective solute transport.     

Modeling of equiaxed grain evolution and macrosegregations development in Steel Ingots

The phenomena responsible for the formation of macrosegregations, and grain structures during solidification are closely related. The development of models combining these two aspects is still at its beginning. The application of these models to processes like steel ingot production is a challenging problem mainly due to the size of the products and the variety of the phenomena to be accounted for. In this article we present simulation results using a multiphase and multiscale model in terms of prediction of grain structures, and macrosegregations during solidification. It is shown for the case of 3.3-ton steel ingot that when the grains are globular, grain settling is the predominant mechanism of macrosegregation formation. However, when the morphology is dendritic, the direct contribution of grain settling on the segregation formation is negligible; the interdendritic flow in the more permeable sedimentation layer controls the macrosegregation. The globular-dendritic morphology evolution and dendritic-to-globular morphological transition with increases in local grain density, and its impact on the macrosegregation are discussed.     

真空自耗熔炼过程宏观偏析的数值模拟

基于国内某特钢厂真空自耗生产过程,利用ProCAST软件建立三维熔炼模型,研究了不同电流强度和熔速对铸锭熔池形状和宏观偏析的影响规律.铸锭侧面表层基本不发生宏观偏析,铸锭1/4处偏析度约为1.03的正偏析,铸锭中心处由于枝晶沉降形成偏析度为0.96的负偏析.电流强度从4kA增加至8kA,熔滴滴落温度增加,熔池深度加深,...     

Simulation of convection and macrosegregation in a large steel ingot

Melt convection and macrosegregation in casting of a large steel ingot are numerically simulated. The simulation is based on a previously developed model for multicomponent steel solidification with melt convection and involves the solution of fully coupled conservation equations for the transport phenomena in the liquid, mush, and solid. Heat transfer in the mold and insulation materials, as well as the formation of a shrinkage cavity at the top, is taken into account. The numerical results show the evolution of the temperature, melt velocity, and species concentration fields during solidification. The predicted variation of the macrosegregation of carbon and sulfur along the vertical centerline is compared with measurements from an industrial steel ingot that was sectioned and analyzed. Although generally good agreement is obtained, the neglect of sedimentation of free equiaxed grains prevents the prediction of the zone of negative macrosegregation observed in the lower part of the ingot. It is also shown that the inclusion of the shrinkage cavity at the top and the variation of the final solidification temperature due to macrosegregation is important in obtaining good agreement between the predictions and measurements.     

Numerical simulation of Mo macrosegregation during ingot casting of high-Mo austenitic stainless steel

Mo macrosegregation was studied through the comparison of numerical simulation of the ingot pouring process and experiment on as-cast 500?kg high-Mo austenitic stainless steel ingot. The simulated results showed the evolution of temperature, melt velocity and the patterns of Mo macrosegregation, and revealed the effects of pouring temperature and cooling rate on macrosegregation. The predicted variation of Mo macrosegregation was compared with measurement values from an industrial ingot along the vertical centreline and horizontal direction. Severe normal and gravity segregation were observed. Although a basic agreement was obtained, the lack of a sufficiently fine numerical grid and the neglect of sedimentation for free equiaxed grains in the prediction brought about the absence of A-segregation and V-segregation. Further investigation would be needed to perform this investigation. The predicted results also confirmed that Mo macrosegregation in the ingot could be effectively diminished by improving cooling rate and decreasing pouring temperature.     

Effect of Titanium Addition on As Cast Structure and Macrosegregation of High‐Carbon High‐Chromium Steel

In casting heavy ingots of high‐chromium high‐carbon cold work steels, macrosegregation develops in the center of the ingot, causing difficulties during subsequent hot working. Heat transfer and solidification of an industrial scale high‐carbon high‐chromium steel ingot was simulated and thereafter a laboratory scale representative ingot was designed to model the solidification of the industrial scale ingot. Titanium in the range of 0.3–1% was added to the high‐chromium high‐carbon (12%Cr–2%C) steel during melting process. Microstructures, macrosegregation and phase formations were studied using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X‐ray spectrometry, wave dispersive X‐ray spectrometry, optical emission spectroscopy, and X‐ray diffraction. Addition of 0.3% titanium was sufficient to diminish the macrosegregation; however it did not have a significant effect on the grain size. Addition of 0.7 and 1% titanium had a substantial effect on grain size in the longitudinal direction and refined the primary carbides structure. The formation of small TiC carbides that precipitated before solidification of liquid iron acted as nuclei for primary pro‐eutectic austenite grains.     

Prediction of Macrosegregation in Steel Ingots: Influence of the Motion and the Morphology of Equiaxed Grains

Although a significant amount of work has already been devoted to the prediction of macrosegregation in steel ingots, most models considered the solid phase as fixed. As a result, it was not possible to correctly predict the macrosegregation in the center of the product. It is generally suspected that the motion of the equiaxed grains is responsible for this macrosegregation. A multiphase and multiscale model that describes the evolution of the morphology of the equiaxed crystals and their motion is presented. The model was used to simulate the solidification of a 3.3-ton steel ingot. Computations that take into account the motion of dendritic and globular grains and computations with a fixed solid phase were performed, and the solidification and macrosegregation formation due to the grain motion and flow of interdendritic liquid were analyzed. The predicted macrosegregation patterns are compared to the experimental results. Most important, it is demonstrated that it is essential to consider the grain morphology, in order to properly model the influence of grain motion on macrosegregation. Further, due to increased computing power, the presented computations could be performed using finer computational grids than was possible in previous studies; this made possible the prediction of mesosegregations, notably A segregates. This article is based on a presentation given at the International Symposium on Liquid Metal Processing and Casting (LMPC 2007), which occurred in September 2007 in Nancy, France.     

Modeling of interdendritic strain and macrosegregation for dendritic solidification processes: Part I. Theory and experiments

In the first part of this two-part article, mathematical models have been developed to characterize temperature, interdendritic stain, and segregation distributions during dendritic solidification. This aims to predict the effect of interdendric strain associated with sudden changes in the cooling conditions on the macrosegregation distributions, i.e., the combined effect of interdendric strain and macrosegregation on the dendritic structure. These theoretical models were verified on a laboratory scale. Four laboratory ingots of 0.53 and 0.9 wt pct C steels were cast horizontally and unidirectionally in a static mold under cooling conditions designed to approximate those in the continuous-casting process. Thermocouples recorded temperatures in the ingot at different locations from copper chill. The ingots were examined for macro-microstructure, and the extent of carbon macrosegregation was determined by wet chemical analysis. The experimental results indicate that static mold with sudden changes in the cooling conditions on the copper chill provides an approximately similar structure and macrosegregation profiles to those in a continuous-casting process. It is concluded that these cooling conditions have a significant effect on the fluctuated macrosegregation phenomenon. The sudden drop in the heat flux on the chill causes a positive segregation, whereas a sudden increase in heat flux results in a negative segregation. Also, the metallographic examination shows that there is high inelastic deformation of the dendrites due to the sudden drop in heat flux on the chill.     

超声处理对2219大规格铝锭微观组织与宏观偏析的影响

在半连续铸造过程中施加超声,成功制备了φ1250 mm 2219铝合金铸锭.利用光学显微镜、扫描电镜、能谱仪及直读光谱仪等仪器对铸锭的组织与成分分布进行检测与分析,探究超声对铸锭组织与偏析的内在作用机制.研究结果表明:超声振动引起的空化和声流效应能明显均匀组织结构,细化晶粒,尤其是心部晶粒细化率达到39.6%.超声促进铸锭晶间第二相呈枝丫状断续分布,晶内析出物点状弥散分布.同时,超声有效减小近表面负偏析,降低边部与心部之间的溶质浓度差异,弱化整个横截面的浓度波动,从而改善宏观偏析.      

激光诱导击穿光谱原位分析仪和电子探针在CrMo耐磨铸钢元素偏析分析中的联合应用

CrMo耐磨铸钢是重要的耐磨钢铁材料,凝固过程中的溶质元素偏析是影响CrMo耐磨铸钢组织和性能的重要因素,了解凝固过程中的溶质元素偏析对于CrMo耐磨铸钢的工业化生产具有重要的借鉴意义。宏观偏析和微观偏析是衡量材料偏析程度的两个指标,准确的测量其偏析状况是研究溶质元素偏析的基础。实验以CrMo耐磨铸钢为研究对象,采用激光诱导击穿光谱原位分析仪(LIBSOPA)和电子探针(EPMA)分析钢锭不同部位的宏观偏析和凝固组织中的微观偏析,结果发现,Cr、V和Mn元素在CrMo耐磨铸钢铸锭中宏观偏析程度较小,偏析比接近1,而Mo元素宏观偏析程度较大,其最大宏观偏析比超过1.20;Cr、Mo、V和Mn元素在CrMo钢凝固组织中均存微观偏析,且随着冷却速度的增加,Cr、Mo、V和Mn微观偏析程度也随之增加,其最大微观偏析比分别为1.39、2.63、3.47和1.83。LIBSOPA与EPMA在CrMo耐磨铸钢元素偏析分析中的联合应用,对全面了解CrMo钢铸锭元素偏析,优化铸造以及后续的热加工工艺具有重要借鉴意义。     

GCr15SiMn轴承钢中碳元素偏析与疏松的相关性

针对GCr15SiMn钢锭在凝固过程中容易出现宏观偏析与疏松等凝固缺陷的问题,为了制定更合理的模铸浇注工艺,通过真空感应炉冶炼1 kg的GCr15SiMn钢锭,从模铸工艺和钢锭宏观组织的角度研究了实验室与工业生产的相似性,采用OPA、SEM等检验方法研究了碳偏析与疏松的相关性。研究表明,碳元素的偏析最为严重,碳元素偏析与疏松相关。得出了碳偏析与疏松的相关性公式SC=0.92P－0.89,该公式所体现出的基本规律适用于工业生产的铸锭。根据SEM和OPA的统计结果,建立了疏松的当量直径与其定量表征值(表观致密度P)的对应关系。结果表明,随着疏松的当量直径增大,碳的偏析度逐渐增大。利用Scheil微观偏析模型从原理上进行了分析与讨论,得出碳的偏析度和钢液收缩量呈正相关关系。     

镍基高温合金真空自耗数值模拟

摘要：基于某特钢厂生产过程,对镍基高温合金的真空自耗过程进行数值模拟,研究了不同电流强度、熔速和通入氦气对铸锭Nb元素宏观偏析、黑斑形成的影响规律。铸锭在顶部和1/4处产生较为严重的宏观偏析。随着熔炼电流强度增加,铸锭顶部的磁场增加,顶部宏观偏析和1/4处黑斑逐渐加重。随着熔速的增加,熔池深度增加,铸锭顶部的Nb元素偏析加重,铸锭1/4处黑斑增加。熔炼时通入氦气,铸锭冷却速率大幅度提高,铸锭的元素偏析程度和黑斑明显减少,且最大偏析部位向铸锭顶部移动。     

Numerical simulation of vacuum arc remelting nickel based superalloy

Based on the process in a special steel plant, the vacuum arc remelting process of nickel based superalloys was simulated to investigate the effect of current intensity, melting rate, and helium gas cooling on macrosegregation of Nb and formation of freckles. The ingot has severe macrosegregation in the upper and 1/4 part of the ingot. With the current intensity increasing, the magnetic field in the upper part of the ingot increases, and macrosegregation and freckles increase gradually both in the upper and 1/4 part of the ingot. With the melting rate increasing, the depth of the molten pool increases, the macrosegregation of Nb increases in the upper part of the ingot, and the freckles increase significantly in the 1/4 part of the ingot. When helium is introduced into the ingot during smelting, the cooling rate increases greatly, the macrosegregation and freckles reduce significantly in the ingot, and the maximum segregation position moves to the top of the ingot.     

A Study of the Development of Chemical Heterogeneity in Large Forging Ingots: Depending Upon the Configuration and Thermophysical Conditions of Casting

The paper reports the findings in the development of “A” segregation streaks in large ingots which were cast under various solidification conditions: different bottom shapes of ingots and metal pouring using inoculated stream. It is shown that changed conditions bring about a decrease in the “A” segregation zones as well as reduced diameters and shorter lengths of “A” segregation streaks. A different design of the ingot bottom and smaller streaks reduce the chemical heterogeneity of ingots and improve the anisotropy of the forgings fabricated from the ingots.     

Four-Phase Dendritic Model for the Prediction of Macrosegregation,Shrinkage Cavity,and Porosity in a 55-Ton Ingot

A four-phase dendritic model was developed to predict the macrosegregation, shrinkage cavity, and porosity during solidification. In this four-phase dendritic model, some important factors, including dendritic structure for equiaxed crystals, melt convection, crystals sedimentation, nucleation, growth, and shrinkage of solidified phases, were taken into consideration. Furthermore, in this four-phase dendritic model, a modified shrinkage criterion was established to predict shrinkage porosity (microporosity) of a 55-ton industrial Fe-3.3 wt pct C ingot. The predicted macrosegregation pattern and shrinkage cavity shape are in a good agreement with experimental results. The shrinkage cavity has a significant effect on the formation of positive segregation in hot top region, which generally forms during the last stage of ingot casting. The dendritic equiaxed grains also play an important role on the formation of A-segregation. A three-dimensional laminar structure of A-segregation in industrial ingot was, for the first time, predicted by using a 3D case simulation.     

Steady state segregation and heat flow in ESR

A combined theoretical and experimental study of steady-state heat flow and segregation in ESR is presented. The segregation model permits prediction of pressure gradients, hence, interdendritic flow velocities responsible for macrosegregation in the “mushy? zone of axisymmetric ESR ingots. The heat flow model considers the solidus isotherm as a moving boundary. The relationships between power and slag temperature as well as power and heat transfer coefficient are experimentally measured and included in the heat balance equation for the slag. Experiments on both a low-temperature simulated ESR apparatus and on a 200 mm diam ESR ingot mold verify both models.