Effect of germination on the chemical,functional and pasting properties of flour from brown and yellow varieties of tigernut (Cyperus esculentus)

The chemical, functional and pasting properties of flours processed from germinated (0, 24, 48 and 72 h) brown and yellow varieties of tigernut (Cyperus esculentus) seed was studied. Germination decreased carbohydrate (60.50–53.60%) and fat (60.50–53.60%) while protein and ash increased from 8.23% to 12.40% and 3.28% to 4.26%, respectively. In addition, functional properties such as foaming, emulsion, water and oil absorption capacities increased from 7.75% to 12.91%, 14.32–20.25 ml oil/g sample, 2.56–6.97 g water/g sample and 1.14–1.78 g oil/g sample, respectively, with germination. Least gelation of flour samples were improved as a result of germination process. Conversely, bulk density decreased with germination time (0.58–0.50 g/cm³). Trough, peak viscosity, break down, final viscosity, peak time and pasting temperature values were in the range (120.96–203.04 RVU), (145.28–228.11 RVU), (7.85–14.32 RVU), (180.62–324.73 RVU), (5.01.83–6.00 min) and (63.85–65.47 °C), respectively. Our results suggest that the incorporation of germinated tigernut flours may help in enhancing protein calorie delivery with improved functionality in complementary food formulations and baked products.     

Effect of Addition of Ficus exasperata and Spoudias mombin Leaves on Functional and Sensory Properties of Cassava Roots in “Lafun” Production

Peeled and unpeeled cassava tubers (TMS 30572) were soaked with the leaves of Ficus exasperata (Ipin) and Spondias mombin (Iyeye) and the effects were determined on functional and sensory properties. The cassava samples were soaked in water to ferment for 72 h, pressed, dried, milled and sieved to obtain lafun flour. The lafun flour was reconstituted with hot water to produce a stiff dough and subjected to sensory evaluation using a 9-point Hedonic scale. Bulk density, water holding capacity, swelling index and dispersibility index varied from 0.53 to 0.63 g/cm³, 14.13 to 14.85 g/ml, 0.50 to 1.00 g/ml and 8.00 to 10.00 ml respectively. Lafun obtained from cassava steeped with F. exasperata leaves was significantly different (p < 0.05) from others; the maltose equivalent of lafun increased and this invariably reduced water absorption during dough preparation. Amylograph data showed that pasting time, temperature, peak viscosity, final viscosity and set-back value were between 4.00 to 5.15 min; 77.65 to 79.25°C; 331.33 to 371.17 RVU (Rapid Visco-Analyzer Unit); 225.50 to 279.00 RVU and 29.25 to 57.58 RVU respectively. Stiff dough of lafun samples obtained from unpeeled cassava steeped with F. exasperata had the highest mean scores for mouth feel, texture and overall acceptability, although all the samples were statistically similar (p > 0.05). The work revealed that F. exasperata increased the maltose equivalent and invariably reduced the level of water absorption in dough preparation. S. mombin on the other hand had no significant effect. Extract is more effective in stabilizing RPKO (hydrolytically and oxidatively) than MALE.     

Quality Evaluation of Maize Chips (Kokoro) Fortified with Cowpea Flour

Quality evaluation of “kokoro” fortified with cowpea flour (0, 10, 20, 30, and 40 %) was studied. The blends were reconstituted into a thick paste, manually moulded into kokoro stick and deep fried in hot vegetable oil at about 170°C for 5 minutes. These flour blends were analyzed for pasting, proximate and functional properties. The result showed that there was significant difference (p < 0.05) in the proximate composition in all the bends. The protein content ranged from 15.20 – 23.03% while ash content was between 1.29 – 1.90%, which increased with increase in cowpea flour. The carbohydrate, fat and fiber contents decreased with values ranging from 59.17 – 65.00%, 3.24 – 4.40% and 2.23 – 2.96%, respectively. The pasting characteristics of the maize cowpea blends gave a peak viscosity ranging from 510 – 702 cp. There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the pasting time and temperature. The functional properties reflected that water absorption, oil absorption and foaming capacity significantly increased with increase in cowpea flour with their values ranging from 186.67 – 210.00 g/100 g, 163.33 – 195.00 g/mg and 30.73 – 39.27% respectively. Bulk density also followed the same trend. Sample CAF (100% maize) reflected the highest dispersibility value (6.63%). No significant difference (p > 0.05) was observed in the swelling capacity and least gelatinization concentration. Although the sensory result indicated that increase in cowpea flour does not show a significant difference (p > 0.05) in the sensory parameters, the overall acceptability of the samples was highly rated.     

Chemical,functional and nutritional properties of wet dehulled niger (Guizotia abyssinica Cass.) seed flour

Niger seeds were dehulled using hot lye treatment. Dehulling of niger seeds increased the protein and fat contents from 24 to 35 and 31–53 g/100 g and decreased the crude fiber from 16.9 to 2.2 g/100 g, respectively. The defatted flour prepared from dehulled niger seeds was evaluated for chemical, functional and nutritional properties and compared to the undehulled flour. The protein content of the dehulled flour increased from 44 to 63 g/100 g. Dehulling resulted in inactivation of trypsin inhibitor activity. The dehulled flour had higher water and fat absorption capacities. However, the nitrogen solubility, emulsification capacity and foaming properties decreased. Chemical score of the dehulled flour was higher; threonine was the first limiting amino acid followed by lysine and isolecuine. The in vitro digestibility of the protein increased due to dehulling (85.5%) compared to that of undehulled flour (76%). The calculated nutritional indices, essential amino acid index, biological value, nutritional index and C-PER, were higher in dehulled flour compared to undehulled flour. The available lysine content appeared to be unchanged.     

Pithecellobium jiringa legume flour for potential food applications: Studies on their physico-chemical and functional properties

Jering seeds are traditionally consumed as a legume in South-East Asia. In the present study, we evaluated the physico-chemical, functional and cooking properties of jering seed flour with a major aim to popularise this seed for development of new food products. The seed flour had high moisture (58.55%) and crude protein contents (14.19%). Results on the functional properties revealed significant differences in the protein solubility, which showed a decrease from pH 2 to pH 4, with high water absorption (2.83 ml/g) and oil absorption (1.83 ml/g) capacities. The emulsifying activity and stability of the seed flour was highest at 0.4 M (26.27% and 75.75%, respectively). Addition of carbohydrates (lactose, maltose and sucrose) decreased the least gelation capacity. Results of this study showed functional properties of jering seed flour to be dependent on the concentration, pH and ionic strengths, which can be suitably modified for development of new food products.     

Use of Seed Sprouting in Modification of Food Nutrients and Pasting Profile of Tropical Legume Flours

The study investigates the effect of seed sprouting on minerals, anti nutrients and pasting characteristics of flours produced from some tropical legume seeds. Samples were collected from cowpea (Vigna ungulculata); red kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), and Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) and each sample was divided into two portions. A portion was sprouted while the other portion served as the control. The flours from sprouted and non-sprouted seeds were analyzed for the minerals, anti nutritional and pasting properties. The samples were found to differ significantly (p < 0.05) in the minerals, anti nutritional composition and pasting properties of the flours. Sprouting increased the mineral contents of the flours generally the calcium content of non-sprouted red kidney beans (13.8 mg/100 g) increased to 16.1 mg/100 g in the sprouted flour. The haemagglutinin decreased from 40.6 HU/mg in non sprouted red kidney to 6.4 HU/mg in the sprouted. The final viscosity of the non sprouted flours were higher than those of the sprouted, with non sprouted cowpea scoring the highest, 272 RVU, while sprouted red kidney beans had the least, 109.06 RVU, which implies that sprouting caused a reduction in the gel strength and elasticity of the samples. Seed sprouting effectively increased the mineral nutrients and lowered the anti nutrients, but produced steamed paste with poor gel strength.     

Proximate,Functional and Anti-Nutritional Properties of Boiled Ukpo Seed (Mucuna flagellipes) Flour

“Ukpo” (Mucuna flagellipes) seed flour is one of the soup thickeners used in most rural Igbo-speaking communities of Southern Nigeria. Its preparation is usually associated with long cooking time which is required to soften the cotyledon before grinding as well as reduce the anti-nutritional components of the seed. This work was therefore aimed at determining the effect of boiling time on some functional properties and antinutritional properties of the ukpo seed flour. The result obtained showed that there were slight reductions in the protein, fat and ash content as boiling time increased probably due to leaching. All the functional properties analysed increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05) with increasing boiling time. The water absorption, oil absorption and emulsion capacities increased from values of 1.60 ml/g, 1.23 ml/g and 9.3 ml/g respectively at 0 minutes to 3.2 ml/g, 2.8 ml/g and 17.66 ml/g respectively at 60 minutes. The bulk density and swelling index also increased from 0.72 g/ml to 1.17 cm³/cm³ and from 1.02 g/ml to 1.36 cm³/cm³ respectively. The oxalate, tannin, saponin, phenol and phytate contents decreased significantly (p ≤ 0.05) with increasing boiling time. The values at 60 minutes boiling time were 0.14%, 0.182%, 0.434%, 0.146% and 0.719% respectively. These results suggest that heat treatment improves the performance of the Ukpo flour in soup thickening while reducing to a large extent the anti-nutritional properties.     

Effect of Soaking Period on the Ogi Powder Produced from Sorghum

Based on previous research works, it was necessary to investigate the effects of varying steeping period on the quality of ogi powder. Sorghum grain steeped for 24, 36, 48, 60 and 72 h was processed into ogi making use of the traditional method and subsequently dried at 55 °C. The ogi powder obtained was analyzed for proximate composition, functional and pasting properties and consumer acceptability was also carried out. The results showed that the loose and pack bulk density ranged from 0.27 – 0.31 g/ml and 0.53 – 0.55 g/ml respectively from all the steeping periods. Water absorption capacity was from 178 – 199 g/100 g. Linear relationship described well the increase in water and oil absorption in this study and the coefficient of correlation (R²) was 0.988 and 0.814 respectively. Emulsion capacity increased from 19.40 – 21.25 g/100 g for all the steeping periods emulsion stability increased from 6.50 – 6.70%. Foaming capacity decreased from 15.05 – 13.10% for all the soaking periods. Swelling index was between 6.9 – 7.2 per cent for all the steeping periods 5.05 – 5.51 min respectively. There was significant difference (p < 0.05) in the peak viscosity, final, trough, and set back viscosities. These pasting properties decreased with increase in soaking period.     

Physicochemical Properties of Mango Seed Flour

The proximate composition, functional and antinutritional properties of flour produced from seeds of mangoes grown in Ebonyi State were studied. Two cultivars: India and Indochinese were used for the study. The aim of the study was to determine any possible potential that flour obtained from these seeds might possess. Results revealed that flours from India and Indochinese cultivars had protein contents of 6.00 and 4.95%; moisture, 5.00 and 10.36%; fibre, 11.00 and 15% while the carbohydrate was 74.41 and 64.23% respectively. Results from the functional properties showed that flours from both of the cultivars had water absorption capacities of 2.0 g/g and 1.5 g/g; oil absorption capacity of 2.16 g/g and 1.83 g/g while foaming capacity was 3.79 g/g and 3.75 g/g with India cultivar having higher values for each of the functional properties studied although, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the values except for the water absorption capacity. Levels of hydrogen cyanide, phytic acid and trypsin inhibitors were generally low and within safe levels.     

Physicochemical and Sensory Properties of Instant Kunun-Zaki Flour Blends from Sorghum and Mango Mesocarp Flours

Instant Kunun-zaki, a fermented non-alcoholic sorghum beverage, was prepared by mixing different per cent blend ratios of unmalted sorghum flour: mango mesocarp flour (90:0, 75:15, 70:20, 65:25, and 60:30) with 10% malted sorghum. Proximate compositions, chemical and functional properties of the blends were analyzed. Addition of mango mesocarp flour significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased the ash (1.31 to 1.75%), crude fibre (2.57 to 3.39%) and decreased significantly (p < 0.05) the energy content (368.21 to 354.67 kcal/100 g) of the blends. The β-carotene content also increased from 95.65 to 139.13 μg/100 g with increased mango mesocarp flour. Hygroscopicity increased significantly (p < 0.05) from 6.10 to 10.28% while viscosity of the blends decreased significantly (p < 0.05) from 1715 to 1195.46 cP. Mango mesocarp flour addition increased the ash, crude fibre and introduced β-carotene into the product.     

Bread Making Potential of Composite Flour of Wheat-Acha (Digitaria exilis staph) Enriched with Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. walp) Flour

Bread-making potentials of composite flours containing 90% wheat and 10% acha enriched with 0-15% cowpea flour were investigated. Proximate composition and functional properties of the blends were studied using AOAC standard methods. Bread loaves were prepared from the blends using the straight dough method and evaluated for loaf height, loaf volume, loaf weight and sensory characteristics. Crude protein, crude fat, crude fibre and ash contents increased significantly (p < 0.05) with increase in level of cowpea flour addition, but moisture content was not significantly (p > 0.05) different among the blends. Functional properties, with exception of bulk density and swelling capacity, were significantly (p < 0.05) different among the blends. Average loaf height and loaf volume decreased significantly (p < 0.05) with increased cowpea flour but loaf weight showed opposite trend with significant (p < 0.05) differences as cowpea flour increased. However, the addition of cowpea flour significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the loaf specific volume but all enriched samples were not significantly (p > 0.05) different. Bread samples from composited blends were rated lower than bread from all wheat bread. Bread loaves from enriched composite flour with up to 10% cowpea flour were acceptable to the panelists.     

Acceptability of Noodles Produced from Blends of Wheat,Acha and Soybean Composite Flours

Acha (Digitaria exilis) and soybean (Glycine max) were processed into flours and used to substitute wheat flour (Titicum aestivm) as a composite flour at different proportions of 100:0:0 (Wheat); 75:25:25 (Wheat: Acha: Soybean); 75:25 (Wheat: Acha); 75:25 (Wheat: Soybean) and 50:50 (Acha: soybean). The formulated blends were used to produce noodles. The noodles were subjected to proximate analysis, functional properties and sensory evaluation using commercial instant noodles as control. The results revealed that the protein, moisture, ash and fat contents were higher in the formulated samples than in the control. Sample AS (50% Acha and 50% Soybean) had 26.47% protein and was significantly different (p < 0.05) from the control (8.97%). The protein and fat contents increased while carbohydrate decreased with increase in soybean addition to the blend. The functional properties showed that water absorption capacity increased with increase in wheat blend. There were no significant differences (p < 0.05) between the formulated samples in their swelling index and wettability. The result of the sensory evaluation based on a nine point hedonic scale showed that generally apart from the control, noodles from 100% wheat and wheat noodles supplemented with soybean up to 25% were acceptable to the panelists.     

Processing Effects on Chemical,Functional and Pasting Properties of Cowpea Flour from Different Varieties

Cowpea varieties (IT88D-867-11, IT89KD-288 and MALA) were boiled, roasted, dehulled and later milled into powder. The proximate composition, functional and pasting properties as well as anti-nutritional contents (Tannin) of the product was subsequently determined. The result of the study revealed significant increase (P < 0.05) in the crude protein, crude ash, swelling power and water absorption capacity. Conversely, significant decrease (P < 0.05) was observed in crude fat, starch content, moisture content, solubility and peak viscosity. Boiled samples have significantly higher (P < 0.05) crude protein, swelling power, water absorption capacity, with concomitantly lower solubility and tannin content. Crude ash, moisture, solubility and tannin content of dehulled samples decreased significantly with an increase in protein, swelling power and water absorption capacity. However, IT89KD-288 has the highest protein content irrespective of the processing used. But raw IT89KD-288 showed highest percentage of swelling power, solubility, water absorption capacity and Tannin content. The result revealed that both boiling and dehulling will greatly reduce tannin content of cowpea.     

Effect of Dry Heat Pre-Treatment (Toasting) on the Cooking Time of Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp)

Four cowpea varieties (Brown beans, Oloka beans, IAR48 and IT89KD-288) were toasted at 105 °C, and used to study the effect of dry heat treatment on the cooking time and nutrient composition of cowpea seeds and also its effect on the functional properties of resultant flour of the cowpea seed varieties. Toasting reduced the cooking time for brown and oloka cowpea varieties from 55.00–31.00 and 70.67–51.67 min, respectively. The cooking time for IAR48 and IT89KD-288 cowpea varieties increased from 104.67 to 106.00 and 88.00 to 88.67 min, respectively. The results indicate that the cooking time of cowpea seeds can be reduced significantly on toasting, while maintaining their potential as functional agents in the food industry for nutrition and utilisation. Correlation between the amount of water imbibed by cowpea seeds and their cooking time was -0.74, but was not significant at p ≤ 0.05, suggesting that there is no significant relationship between the amount of water imbibed by cowpea seeds and their cooking time.     

Functional properties of corn and corn–lentil extrudates

Functional properties of corn and corn–lentil extrudates were investigated as a result of extrusion conditions, including feed rate (2.5–6.8 kg/h), feed moisture (13–19% wet basis) and extrusion temperature (170–230 °C). Lentil was used in mixtures with corn flour at a ratio of 10–50% (legume/corn). The water absorption index of extrudates increased with extrusion temperature and feed moisture content and decreased with feed rate and lentil/corn ratio. The water solubility index of extrudates increased with temperature, but decreased with feed moisture content and feed rate. The oil absorption index of extrudates increased with extrusion temperature and decreased with feed rate, feed moisture content and lentil/corn ratio. Generally, the use of lentil flour led to products with lower values for functional properties. Principal component analysis of functional properties discriminated samples with appropriate functionality based on industrial use.     

Effect of Different Soaking Time and Boiling on the Proximate Composition and Functional Properties of Sprouted Sesame Seed Flour

The effect of soaking time on the proximate composition and functional properties of sprouted sesame seed flour were investigated. Sesame seed samples were cleaned and pretreated by soaking in clean water for 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 h. One batch was sprouted for 36 h and another portion was sprouted and then boiled (100 °C for 20 min), dried, milled into flours and subjected to further analysis. The raw (unsprouted) sample was used as control. The proximate composition and the functional properties were determined for each of the samples and the result showed deviations in nutrient content from the raw seed flour. Moisture and protein content was increased by soaking and sprouting but reduced after boiling from a value of (4.99% and 47.64%) to (4.92% and 42.06%) respectively, for the 10 h soaked sample. Fat, crude fibre, ash and carbohydrate contents were reduced by soaking and sprouting while boiling of the sprouted seeds increased the fat and carbohydrate content. Soaking, sprouting and boiling significantly affected the functional properties of the flour (p < 0.05). Soaking and sprouting reduced the bulk density and dispersion of the samples from an initial value of (0.83% and 67.50%) for the unsprouted seed flour to a value of (0.71% and 59.00%) in 10 h soaked samples but increased slightly in most of the soaked sprouted-boiled samples. Thus, soaking of sesame seeds for 12–14 h before sprouting can be used to improve the proximate composition and functional properties of sesame seeds, hence, increase the utilization of the flour.     

Composition and Pasting Properties of Breadfruit (Artocarpus communis Forst) from South-West States of Nigeria

Breadfruit (BF) is an underutilised crop in Nigeria. Information on its composition and the behaviour of its flour during cooking are important requirements for enhancing the utilisation of BF. Flours of BF obtained from three towns in South-West Nigeria were analysed for their chemical and pasting properties. Starch, crude fibre, ash, fat, protein and pasting properties were evaluated. Starch was the predominant carbohydrate, representing about 60.4 to 65.8% in the pulp and 47.5 to 57.5% in the peel. Crude fibre values varied from 6.31 to 9.04%. There was no significant difference between the crude fibre contents of the pulp and peels. Ash content ranged from 2.77 to 4.78% with the peels having significantly higher values than the pulp. Fat content ranged from 0.43 to 0.65%. The pulps had significantly higher protein content than the peels. Peak viscosity varied significantly across locations with the peels having significantly lower viscosity than the pulps. The peels were significantly hot stable with breakdown viscosity values of 6.92 to 7.95 RVU compared to the pulps (72.33 to 210.77RVU). Final viscosity of the pulp was higher than that of the peels. Higher setback viscosity values were observed in the pulps than the peels and the former cooked in significantly shorter time (3.67 to 3.77 min) than the peels (8.93 to 8.99 min). The study revealed considerable differences in the composition of breadfruit grown in different locations in Nigeria.     

Proximate composition and functional properties of African breadfruit kernel and flour blends

African breadfruit seeds (ABS) were toasted at 80 and 120°C for varied period of times. The effects of the toasting temperature and time on selected functional properties of the seed flours were determined. Flour blends were prepared from the toasted ABS and wheat flours. The chemical composition and functional properties of the blends were determined. Toasting increased the water absorption capacity (WAC) of ABS flours with increased toasting time at both toasting temperatures. The oil absorption capacity (OAC) on the other hand, increased up to 20 min of seed toasting at both 80 and 120°C and thereafter decreased. At both 80 and 120°C, the foaming capacity (FC) of the seeds decreased with increased toasting time, with greater decreased at 120°C. The protein, fat, ash and crude fibre contents of the flour blends increased while carbohydrate and moisture contents decreased with increased levels of toasted African breadfruit flour (TABF) in the blends. The TABF showed significantly higher (P<0.05) WAC, OAC, FC and emulsion activity (EA) than wheat flour (WF). These properties increased with increased amounts of TABF in the blends. All the flour blends exhibited a least gelation concentration of 8% (W/V). The bulk density (g/cm³) and wettability values of flour blends varied from 0.74 to 0.84 and 19 to 31, respectively. Heating increased the swelling capacity of the flour blends.     

Effect of superfine green tea powder on the thermodynamic,rheological and fresh noodle making properties of wheat flour

Superfine green tea powder (SGTP) was used to substitute 0 g, 1 g, 2 g, and 3 g of 100 g wheat flour (defined as 0SGTP, 1SGTP, 2SGTP and 3SGTP respectively) to make fresh noodles. The effects of SGTP on the viscosity, thermodynamic and rheological properties of wheat flour were evaluated, as well as the sheet colour, cooking quality, texture properties and sensory characteristics of green tea noodles. The results revealed that the stability, elastic modulus (G′) and viscous modulus (G″) of wheat dough all increased with the increase of green tea powder proportion. No significant differences were found in gelatinisation properties of the green tea-flour systems. Furthermore, adding SGTP could significantly (P < 0.05) retard the retrogradation of the gelatinised wheat flour gel. L¹ value of fresh noodles decreased as SGTP content increased while |a¹| value firstly increased and then decreased at 3 g/100 g. The 2SGTP noodle samples showed the least cooking loss. Sensory evaluation indicated that the control and the 2SGTP fresh noodles scored significantly (P < 0.05) higher in terms of colour. No significant difference was detected for the mouthfeel and overall acceptability among all samples.     

Enrichment of Noodles with Soy Flour and Carrot Powder

Noodles were produced from four flour blends of whole wheat, wheat-cassava, wheat-cassava-soy flour and wheat-cassava-carrot flour blends respectively. The flours were analyzed for proximate analysis, functional properties and total carotenoid content. The cooking time of all samples was also determined. Results show that there were significant differences (p < 0.05) between values obtained for moisture content, protein and total carbohydrates (p < 0.05) while values for fat and ash contents of the samples were not significantly different (p > 0.05). The functional properties also showed significant differences (p < 0.05) between the pasting properties except for pasting temperature and the cooking time of the samples. The total carotenoid content of the dried carrot sample was found to be 28.34 mg/100 g dry weight basis, while the noodle sample containing 10% dried carrot sample (CSC4) had a total carotenoid content of 1.80 mg/100 g dry weight basis. The results suggest that noodles made from the different flour blends can compare favourably with conventional noodles made from wheat flour in quality and that carrot flour can be used for noodle enrichment.