Multivariate analysis of new sex role formulations and personality.

Investigated the relationship of new sex role formulations, specifically S. L. Bem's (1974, 1975, 1976) concept of psychological androgyny and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), to personality dimensions. 138 male and 136 female college students filled out the BSRI and the 16 PF. Regression analysis suggested that the BSRI Masculine scale was convergent with personality dimensions characterized as masculine. Results for the BSRI Feminine scale were equivocal. Discriminant analysis suggested that androgynous and masculine-typed Ss shared similar personality dimensions in opposition to feminine and undifferentiated Ss. These results did not fully support Bem's hypothesis of sex roles; however, evidence emerged indicating that masculinity and femininity, as traits, may be qualitatively different phenomena. The implications for trait behavioral measurement are discussed. All results were cross-validated with a 2nd sample of 88 males and 93 females. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An attempt to reverse performance deficits associated with depression and experimentally induced helplessness.

The learned helplessness model of depression predicts that any effective treatment for reactive depression should also reverse performance deficits associated with experimentally induced helplessness, and vice versa. A study was conducted to test this prediction. Ss were 62 college students who were exposed to experimental manipulations designed to induce helplessness or who scored above a group mean on the Beck Depression Inventory. Depressed and helpless Ss were randomly assigned to 4 groups. The 2 treatment groups received either E. Velten's (1968) mood statements for the induction of elation or a set of simple anagrams to solve. The 2 remaining groups were exposed to no-treatment conditions. All Ss were tested for helplessness on a series of concept formation problems. Results fail to confirm the predictions of the learned helplessness model of depression. Although treatment was effective with helpless Ss, the performance of treated depressed Ss was not enhanced. Also, depressed Ss given anagrams performed more poorly than depressed Ss given mood statements. Several possible explanations for the findings are considered. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parent behaviors related to masculine, feminine, and androgynous sex role orientations.

Administered the Berzins-Welling ANDRO scale, a measure of psychological androgyny, and the Parent Behavior Form in a counterbalanced design to 181 male and 300 female undergraduates. Ss of each gender were classified into 1 of 4 sex role categories: masculine typed, feminine typed, androgynous, or indeterminate. Parent scale differences indicate that reported parental affection principally differentiated male groups, whereas parental cognitive or achievement encouragement and permissiveness differentiated female sex role categories. Indeterminates consistently reported the least parental warmth and cognitive involvement, whereas androgynous Ss generally reported the highest. Results indicate that new conceptualizations of sex role orientations, which consider masculine and feminine characteristics to be independent, uncorrelated dimensions, are distinctively related to reported parent child-rearing practices. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Love and sex role stereotypes: Do macho men and feminine women make better lovers?

Examined the relation of sex and sex-role orientation to self-reported feelings and behaviors of love. It was hypothesized that (a) sex role would have a greater effect on love feelings and behaviors than sex, and (b) androgynous individuals would experience love differently than sex-typed individuals. Data were gathered from 100 male and 136 female college students who identified themselves as being in a love relationship. Ss completed a battery of questionnaires, including the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Both hypotheses were supported. There were no sex differences in self-reported love. Androgynous Ss differed from masculine Ss on awareness of love feelings, expression of love, nonmaterial evidence of love, toleration of the loved one's faults, and the total expression of love in their relationship. The androgynous Ss differed from feminine Ss on awareness, willingness to express feelings, and toleration of faults. In all comparisons, androgynous Ss were more loving than sex-typed and undifferentiated Ss. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological androgyny and sex role flexibility: A test of two hypotheses.

In a conceptual replication and extension of a study by S. L. Bem and E. Lenney (1976), 90 male and 118 female college students rated their comfort in and preference for performing several series of masculine, feminine, and neutral activities. Correlations between ratings and scores on the masculinity (instrumentality) and femininity (expressiveness) scales of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ) of J. T. Spence and R. L. Helmreich (1978) tended to be theoretically reasonable in sign but in each sex were low in magnitude and only occasionally significant. Classification of Ss into 4 PAQ groups (androgynous, masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated) on their joint masculinity and femininity scores revealed that androgynous and masculine Ss of both sexes had higher comfort ratings, independent of type of task, than did feminine and undifferentiated Ss, suggesting the importance of instrumentality and expressiveness per se. For forced-choice preference ratings, significant differences were found only in males, masculine Ss having a stronger preference for sex-typed tasks than those in other categorical groups. The PAQ variable, however, accounted for only a small percentage of the variance. The data support the Spence-Helmreich hypotheses that the PAQ and similar instruments are largely measures of instrumental and expressive personality traits rather than sex roles and that these personality dimensions are only minimally related to many sex role behaviors. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role identity and sex-stereotyped tasks in the development of learned helplessness in women.

80 undergraduate females participated in a study investigating the relation of sex-role identity and sex-stereotyped tasks to the development of learned helplessness in women. Half of the Ss from 4 sex-role identity groups received bogus feedback and were forced to fail on a concept formation task described to them as either a male- or female-stereotyped task; the other 40 Ss succeeded on the task. Failure on the concept formation task produced by dysphoric mood (as measured by the Depression Adjective Check Lists) in the Ss, regardless of their sex-role identity and regardless of how the concept formation task was described. However, cognitive/motivational symptoms of helplessness were found only among low-masculine Ss who failed on a male-stereotyped task. Results are compared with previous findings and suggest that feminine-sex-typed women may be particularly susceptible to some helplessness symptoms in contexts defined as male appropriate. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problems associated with the typological measurement of sex roles and androgyny.

Four new measures of sex role style—the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI), the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ), the Personality Research Form (PRF) ANDRO scale, and the Masculinity and Femininity scales of the Adjective Check List (ACL)—each define sex role style and androgyny in similar conceptual and psychometric terms. Although these scales have often been used interchangeably, the current study examined interscale comparability among these inventories. Although correlations among the respective masculinity and femininity row (continuous) scale scores on the BSRI, PAQ, PRF ANDRO scale, and the ACL were moderately high, a large proportion of the 130 undergraduates were classified into different sex role categories (masculine typed, feminine typed, androgynous, or undifferentiated), with the category depending on the inventory used. In fact, when corrected for chance agreements, the majority of Ss (61%) were actually categorized discrepantly by any pair of inventories. This suggests limited comparability of sex role research findings based on different inventories, and when sex role styles are dichotomized into broad typological quadrants, as is the current practice in sex role research, substantial predictive utility is lost. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Androgyny and helping behavior.

Suggests that sex differences found in previous studies of how bystanders' help in emergency situations may have been due to Ss' following sex-role expectations for this type of situation. To study this possibility, 78 male and 82 female undergraduates, classified by the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) as either androgynous or sex-typed, participated in an experiment in which a "victim" choked on food. Ss were either alone with the victim, with 4 other same-sex confederates, or with 4 other mixed-sex confederates. Data on speed of helping and/or proportion of Ss helping show (a) more help by males than by females, (b) more help in S-alone conditions than in larger group conditions, and (c) more help by androgynous than by sex-typed Ss. The pattern of direct, indirect, or no help differed between sex-typed males and females but not between androgynous males and females. Questionnaire data support the notion of diffusion of responsibility for the group-size effect for helping. Several of the sex effects suggested that instrumental competence is the crucial variable in dealing with emergencies. Results also suggest that such competence is due to masculinity rather than sex per se. Findings provide substantial construct validation for androgyny theory and for the BSRI as a measure of androgyny. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dysphoric mood and overeating: A test of restraint theory's disinhibition hypothesis.

Tested the hypothesis that restrained eaters overindulge when experiencing emotional arousal. A dysphoric or nondysphoric mood was induced in 104 normal-weight female college students who had completed the Restraint Scale. Ss completed a bogus "culture-free intelligence test" that consisted of either unsolvable problems (dysphoric mood condition) or solvable problems (nondysphoric mood condition). Mood was measured by the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List. After the mood induction, Ss' cracker consumption was measured in a taste test. Consistent with restraint theory's prediction, the results revealed a significant Restraint by Mood interaction, with restrained eaters eating more when in a dysphoric than in a nondysphoric mood, and unrestrained eaters consuming similar amounts in both mood states. The predictive powers of 2 subscales of the Restraint Scale, Weight Fluctuation (WF) and Concern with Dieting (CD), were also compared. CD scores were better predictors of the amount eaten by Ss in a dysphoric mood than were WF or total restraint scores. This suggests that the 2 subscales of the Restraint Scale are worth distinguishing and that the CD scale may be the more valid of the 2 scales. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in the functional linkage between androgyny, social cognition, and competence.

In Study 1 with 251 male and 389 female undergraduates, androgynous females reported higher self-esteem and were more competent in the judgment of others (Adjective Check List) than any other sex-role type. Study 2 (48 males and 86 females) hypothesized that superior social cognition (Chapin Social Insight Test) mediates the adaptive value of androgyny, allowing effective deployment of expanded sex-role potential across situations. It was found that androgynous males demonstrated the highest social cognition among the 4 sex types. In Study 3 androgynous males were the least well-defended and androgynous females the most highly defended relative to the other sex types. This is proposed as 1 basis for enhanced competence of androgynous females and the unexceptional competence of their male counterparts despite social cognition differences. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An investigation of the relationship between psychological androgyny and components of self-concept.

357 college students participated in a study designed to investigate whether the higher levels of self-esteem and self-concept of androgynous individuals are due to an integration of both masculine and feminine traits or due only to a high level of masculinity. Ss completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and a semantic differential scale previously shown to assess 4 dimensions of the self-concept. The androgynous group scored higher than the undifferentiated group on adjustment to the environment. The androgynous and masculine groups scored higher than the feminine and undifferentiated groups on achievement/leadership, which tends to reflect an instrumental role. Androgynous and feminine Ss scored higher than masculine and undifferentiated Ss on congeniality/sociability, which reflects an expressive role. The masculine and feminine groups scored at appropriate ends of the masculinity/femininity self-concept dimension, with the androgynous and undifferentiated groups at intermediate levels. These results support S. L. Bem's (1975, 1977) theory of androgynous flexibility. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role orientation and resolution of Eriksonian crises during the late adolescent years.

Administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and the Industry Inferiority and Identity vs Identity Diffusion scales from the Inventory of Psychosocial Development (IPD) to 182 male and 222 female undergraduates. Results indicate that the androgynous Ss had the highest difference scores on the IPD scales, with masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated Ss having progressively lower mean scores. Androgynous, masculine, and feminine Ss had equivalently low scores on the scales measuring unsuccessful resolution, with the undifferentiated Ss obtaining the highest scores on these scales. It is suggested that the androgynous and sex-typed Ss view themselves as varying along a dimension of successful resolution. These groups did not vary on measures of unsuccessful resolution. The undifferentiated Ss saw themselves not only as less successful in resolving the crises but also as more unsuccessful. Further analyses revealed that the masculine component of the sex role was the more important for predicting better resolution of the 2 crises. The importance of employing multiple measures of adjustment, the importance of theory-guided research, and the consideration of the relative contributions of masculinity and femininity to adjustment are discussed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ego identity, intimacy, sex role orientation, and gender.

Assessed identity and intimacy in 40 male and 40 female university students, using a semistructured interview and a rating manual. Ss were also administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Results show that for males, identity was related to masculinity and intimacy was related to femininity. For females, identity was also related to masculinity; there were more high-intimacy females than males. While high identity/high intimacy was not contingent on androgyny (as hypothesized), proportionately more androgynous than nonandrogynous Ss were in this category. Results lend support to the hypothesis that it is desirable and beneficial for each sex to integrate aspects of the other gender's sex type. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interaction of sex role self-concept with relationship quality and relationship beliefs in married, heterosexual cohabiting, gay, and lesbian couples.

Examined the relationship between sex-role self-concept (masculine, feminine, undifferentiated, and androgynous) and relationship quality and dysfunctional relationship beliefs among 44 married (mean age 29.68 yrs), 35 heterosexual cohabiting (mean age 28.68 yrs), 50 homosexual (mean age 31.28 yrs), and 56 lesbian (mean age 31.18 yrs) couples. Ss completed questionnaires on demographic and background information, the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, a relationship beliefs inventory, and relationship quality assessments. Individual partner analyses revealed that relationship quality and relationship beliefs differed by Ss' sex-role self-concept. Androgynous and feminine Ss reported higher relationship quality than masculine and undifferentiated Ss; androgynous Ss had fewer "disagreement is destructive" beliefs than feminine Ss; and androgynous Ss had fewer "partner cannot change" beliefs than undifferentiated Ss. Couple analyses showed a relation between partners' sex-role self-concept only for the heterosexual cohabiting couples. For these couples, masculine men tended to pair with feminine or undifferentiated women, and androgynous partners tended to pair together. Relative to other couples, those in which one or both partners were androgynous or feminine reported the highest relationship quality; couples in which one or both partners were undifferentiated or masculine reported the lowest. These effects did not vary by type of couple. It is concluded that sex-role self-concept is a robust factor in appraisals of relationship quality. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological androgyny and stressful life events.

55 female and 22 male undergraduates completed the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, a stressful life-events (SLE) questionnaire, and some general questions on adjustment. Ss were also asked to rate the SLEs they had experienced in the prior 12 mo along the dimensions of desirability, amount of change, anticipation, control, and meaningfulness. As hypothesized, androgynous Ss rated their SLEs as less undesirable than other Ss, but this result held only for females. Undifferentiated Ss rated their SLEs as less meaningful than other Ss, and androgynous Ss rated themselves as happier than other Ss. Of the 5 examined dimensions, only meaningfulness was significantly related to happiness. Results may be related to the differential access to and/or use of social support systems by persons of different sex types. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive influences on the development of learned helplessness.

120 college students participated in an experiment concerning the influence of self-statements following failure on subsequent symptoms of learned helplessness (LH). 40 Ss were given solvable concept-formation problems (nonhelpless condition), and 80 Ss were given unsolvable problems (helpless condition). MANOVA revealed a significant difference between helpless and nonhelpless Ss on cognitive/motivational and affective measures of LH and on self-statements regarding performance. However, when multiple regression and correlational analyses were performed within the group of Ss who failed the problems, no stable relationship was found between self-statements (cognitions) about concept-formation performance and the LH measures. Implications for A. T. Beck's (1967) cognitive model of depression and the reformulated LH model of depression (L. Y. Abramson et al, 1978) are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Boys and girls together—and alienated: On enacting stereotyped sex roles in mixed-sex dyads.

Determined how individual differences in sex role orientation (assessed by the Bem Sex Role Inventory) were related to behavior of 43 male and 43 female undergraduates during an initial, unstructured interaction in mixed-sex dyads. The design contrasted 4 different dyad types: (a) the male and female were stereotypically sex typed correspondent to their gender (male ST–female ST). (b) The male was stereotypically sex typed as masculine and the female as androgynous (male ST–female A). (c) The male was androgynous and the female was sex typed as feminine (male A–female ST). (d) Both were androgynous (male A–female A). Analyses of the Ss' behavior during the 5-min interaction period and self-report data collected afterward revealed significantly less interaction and interpersonal attraction in the male ST–female ST dyads than in the other dyad types. Data are discussed in terms of S. L. Bem's (1974) conception of sex role identification and M. Snyder's (1974) conception of self-monitoring. (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A different perspective on androgyny: Evaluations of masculine and feminine personality characteristics.

Hypothesized that androgynous Ss would be liked best and perceived as most adjusted (Exp I) and also be perceived to be as instrumental as masculine Ss and as expressive as feminine Ss (Exp II). 179 undergraduates served as Ss in Exp I and 160 undergraduates served in Exp II. Personal Attributes Questionnaires ostensibly filled out by others were the stimuli evaluated. These stimuli were constructed so that the stimulus persons (SPs) were classified as either androgynous, undifferentiated, masculine, or feminine. Male and female Ss evaluated the SPs on dimensions of likeability, adjustment, expressiveness, instrumentality, masculinity, and femininity. Results demonstrate that androgynous persons, regardless of gender, were liked best and perceived as most adjusted, whereas undifferentiated persons were liked least and perceived as least adjusted. Masculine and feminine persons, regardless of gender, were rated midway between androgynous and undifferentiated persons and generally were not evaluated differently on these dimensions. Evaluations of SPs on stereotypically gender-related dimensions revealed that androgynous persons were seen to be as highly instrumental as masculine persons and as highly expressive as feminine persons, but generally less masculine and feminine than sex-typed persons. Implications for self-fulfilling prophecies in social behavior are discussed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)