Nitrogen transfer into plasma heated steel melts as a function of arc polarity

Heating liquid steel in the tundish with argon stabilized plasma arcs is one example of the increasing importance of mobile and inert heating systems in metallurgy. Unwanted nitrogen pick-up caused by infiltrated air, and possibly aggravated by the activating effect of plasma, should be minimized by selecting the optimum current mode and torch polarity. With this aim in mind, the nitrogen transfer kinetics have been investigated on 150-kg low carbon steel melts at different nitrogen partial pressures as a function of arc polarity. The experimental plasma plant was equipped with a 2000-A torch, housing a thoria stabilized tungsten electrode, and a counter electrode located at the bottom of the crucible. The torch could be operated with DC of either polarity or with AC. Kinetic models of nitrogen transfer have been developed, which show good agreement with experimental results. Arc polarity has a significant effect both on the rate of nitrogen pick-up in the arc area (pumping effect) and on the mass transport in the melt (stirring effect). Of all configurations tested, the torch as cathode is the most suitable arc configuration for inert heating, since the particularly active N⁺ ions in the plasma are repelled by the melt surface. Furthermore, the relatively strong stirring effect of the plasma jet leads to the highest heat transfer efficiency. On the other hand, where controlled nitrogen pick-up is required, the highest nitrogen transfer rates are obtained with the torch poled as anode.     

Validation of thermal-kinetic-diffusion model for arc plasma surface hardening of steel

Realistic analysis of the surface hardening pocesses during an arc plasma torch application indicates that the events taking place during a plasma torch pass should be properly looked at as a thermal-kinetic-diffusion problem. Arbitrary separation of these components may lead to erroneous evaluation of the variables and parameters that characterise the process. Consequently, a complex finite element model, which describes elementary processes of gas-solid surface interaction by the method of molecular gas dynamics, connects the transfer processes between gaseous and solid phases and takes into consideration thermal and diffusion events in the steel, has been developed. The adequacy of the mathematical model was substantiated by comparing model predictions to measurements made during surface hardening using an arc nitrogen plasma torch. It was proved that the approach gives the possibility to compute with sufficient accuracy the transient distributions of temperature and concentration fields in the steel surface layer during surface hardening using high-enthalpy gas flux.     

Characterization of Phase Transformations and Stresses During the Welding of a Ferritic Mild Steel

The transient stresses and phase evolution have been characterized in the quasi-steady state produced around a gas tungsten arc welding torch in a plain carbon (ASTM 1018) steel using in situ neutron diffraction. A novel method has been developed to isolate the deviatoric or plane stress state in the presence of isotropic contributions to the lattice parameter, such as thermal expansion and solute content. The stress state was found to evolve in the anticipated manner, with compressive stresses ahead of the weld and tensile stresses behind the weld, in the weld and heat-affected zone, and compression in the far field behind the weld. In particular, the region of compression in the heat-affected zone adjacent to and just behind the welding torch expected from weld models was observed. The evolution of phase fraction around the weld was also determined using the technique and the stresses obtained from the ferrite phase.     

Plasma Magmavication of Soils by Nontransferred Arc

Electrical plasma arcs create very high temperatures (T > 4,000°C) that can be specifically directed for the in-place melting of soils. This overview presents a summary of the basic features and capabilities of plasma torches having a nontransferred type of arc for the in situ vitrification of soils. Laboratory chamber experiments using 100 kW and 240 kW plasma systems and full-scale field trials using a 1 MW portable system have successfully melted a variety of soil types, including sands, silts, and clays. Within five minutes' exposure to the arc, a core region of magma forms within the soil matrix that expands radially outward and upward as the torch is pulled out vertically. Several days afterwards, the molten zone cools to form an artificial igneous rock similar to obsidian, basalt, or granite. The size of the vitrified mass is proportional to the electrical power demand. The plasma torch has a configuration similar to a flamethrower and will therefore be amenable to placement down boreholes for purposes of in situ ground modification and subsurface remediation.     

Effects of particle loading on a reduced pressure inductively coupled radio frequency plasma torch

Our previous attempts in the modeling of the heat transfer and fluid flow in radio frequency (RF) plasma torches considered dilute particle-loading conditions. It was assumed that the injected particles have no effect on the plasma temperature and velocity profiles. However, in practice, the plasma deposition process is carried out under fairly high loading conditions to achieve high energy efficiency. The plasma gas experiences significant local cooling and deceleration due to high particle injection rates. To this end, a numerical model has been developed which considers the coupling effects between the plasma temperature and velocity fields and injected particles. In this study, effort has been focused on the particle-loading effect in an inductively coupled RF plasma torch under a reduced pressure environment. The temperature and flow fields in an inductively coupled RF plasma torch are solved using an axisymmetric, variable property formulation of the Navier-Stokes equations. Pseudo two-dimensional electrical and magnetic field equations were considered. In addition, an integral constraint condition is used to maintain a specified discharge power in the plasma torch. The interaction between the plasma gas and injected particles is considered using the well-known “Particle-Source-In-Cell” (PSI-Cell) method. The exchanged mass, momentum, and energy between the plasma gas and injected particles are accounted for through additional source terms in the governing equations. The effect of particle loading on the resulting torch flow, thermal profiles, and particle-melting characteristics are presented and discussed.     

等离子体钢包炉传热物理数学模型

研究了等离子体钢包炉内自由空间辐射传热和等离子枪水冷强制对流传热，建立了等离子体钢包炉传热数学模型。该模型可用于模拟等离子体钢炉不同工艺参数时的热行为，为其工艺和设备的设计及操作参数优化提供了一重要的理论分析工具。     

On the calculation of the free surface temperature of gas-tungsten-arc weld pools from first principles: Part I. modeling the welding arc

A mathematical formulation has been developed and computed results are presented describing the temperature profiles in gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) arcs and, hence, the net heat flux from the welding arc to the weld pool. The formulation consists of the statement of Maxwell's equations, coupled to the Navier-Stokes equations and the differential thermal energy balance equation. The theoretical predictions for the heat flux to the workpiece are in good agreement with experimental measurements — for long arcs. The results of this work provide a fundamental basis for predicting the behavior of arc welding systems from first principles.     

我国电弧炉炼钢技术的进展讨论

10年来我国电弧炉炼钢技术在产量、装备技术(大型化、高的技术经济指标)、高效化技术(超高功率供电、辅助能源、炉料多元化、减少非通电时间、废钢预热、连续化生产)和洁净化技术方面均取得了显著进展。但是废钢资源短缺、电力不足和能源结构不合理等因素制约了我国电弧炉炼钢的进一步发展。文中讨论了我国电弧炉炼钢发展的重点(炉料多样化、合理供电、能量多样化、余热利用和绿色环保)和前瞻(低碳经济洁净钢生产)。     

Modeling of fluid flow and heat transfer in the plasma region of the dc electric arc furnace

A mathematical model describing the transport processes in the plasma arc in dc electric arc furnaces has been developed. The equations of conservation of mass, momentum, and energy are solved numerically in conjunction with Maxwell's equations of the electromagnetic field to calculate the velocity and temperature distributions in the plasma region. The heat transfer from the arc to a rigid anode surface is calculated. The model is applied to obtain quantitative results on the relative importance of the various modes of heat transfer from the electric arc to the anode surface. Computational results were obtained for varying arc current magnitudes and anode-cathode distances. The model predicts higher arc jet velocity and a broader arc core at higher arc current. The shorter arc length is more efficient for transferring heat to the anode.     

A new technique for three-dimensional transient heat transfer computations of autogenous arc welding

Three-dimensional (3-D) transient temperature variations during autogenous gas tungsten arc welding are determined. The heat diffusion equation is solved using an efficient semidiscrete technique. The model employs a combination of unequally spaced grids concentrated near the moving torch in order to minimize the total number of nodes. Finite differencing is used for the spatial terms. The resulting ordinary differential equations for the transient evolution of thermal transport are solved using the fourth-order Runge-Kutta technique. The temperaturedependent thermal properties and latent heats of phase transformations are accounted for. Computations are carried out for a rectangular parallelepiped with convective and radiative surface thermal conditions. Sample results are presented first for the evolution of thermal profiles during ideal welding conditions. These are next compared with variations obtained due to defects, such as weld track misalignment and inclusions. The potential use of this model in the development of an expert welding system using infrared imagery is indicated.     

Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer Modeling of AC Arc in Ferrosilicon Submerged Arc Furnace

 arc has been developed and used to predict heat transfer from the arc to the molten bath in ferrosilicon AC submerged-arc furnace. In this model the time-dependent conservation equations for mass, momentum and energy in the specified domain of plasma zone have been solved numerically coupled with the Maxwell and Laplace equations for magnetic filed and electric potential respectively. A control volume based finite difference method was used to solve the governing equations in cylindrical coordinates. The reliability of the developed model was tested by comparison with the data available in the literature. The present model showed a better consistency with the data given in the literature because of solving the Maxwell and Laplace equations simultaneously for calculation of current density. Parametric studies were carried out to evaluate the effect of electrical current and arc length on flow field and temperature distribution within the arc. According to computed results, a lower power input lead to the higher arc efficiency.     

Process Parameter Optimization of AISI 316L(N) Weld Joints Produced using Flux-Cored Arc Welding Process

Bead on plate welds were carried out on AISI 316L(N) austenitic stainless steel using flux cored arc welding process. The bead on plates weld was conducted as per L₂₅ orthogonal array with statistical design of experiment technique. In this paper, the welding parameters will be optimized based on the weld bead geometry such as depth of penetration, bead width and weld reinforcement. Grey relational analysis and desirability approach are used to optimize the input parameters like wire feed rate, voltage, travel speed and torch angle while considering the multiple output variables simultaneously. Confirmation experiment has also been conducted to validate the optimized parameters.     

Theoretical investigation of penetration characteristics in gas metal-arc welding using finite element method

In the modeling of the gas metal-arc (GMA) welding process, heat inputs to the workpiece by the arc and the metal transfers have been considered separately. The heat energy delivered due to the metal transfer has been approximated in the form of a cylindrical volumetric heat source, whose dimensions of the radius and the height are dependent on the molten metal droplet characteristics. The pinch instability theory (PIT) and the static force balance theory (SFBT) of drop detachment have independently been used to obtain the expressions for various characteristics of the drop,i.e., the drop radius, the drop velocity, and the drop frequency at various welding parameters. The occurrence or the nonoccurrence of finger penetration, routinely found in the GMA welding at high welding currents, has been satisfactorily explained by the cylindrical heat source model. The effect of various welding parameters,e.g., the welding current, the wire radiusetc., on the weld bead penetration characteristics has been investigated. In this modeling effort, the heat conduction equation has been solved in three dimensions.     

Effect of Mechanical Arc Oscillation on the Grain Structure of Mild Steel Weld Metal

The effect of mechanical arc oscillation on the weld metal grain structure in mild steel gas tungsten arc welds has been studied. For welds made without arc oscillation, columnar grains were observed in the weld metal; however, for the same welding parameters, the weld made with arc oscillation had smaller sized relatively equiaxed grains in the weld metal. The strengths for weld made with arc oscillation was higher than that for weld made without arc oscillation, with appreciable increase in ductility; this could be attributed to the reduction in grain size diameter due to arc oscillation. Lower weld metal hardness and increase in heat affected zone hardness was observed in weld made with arc oscillation; this could be attributed to increase in pro-eutectoid ferrite formation with absence of Widmanstatten ferrite structures in the weld metal and less coarsening of grains in the heat affected zone due to increased cooling rate.     

Thermal simulation of HAZ regions in modern high strength steel

Abstract

Thermal simulation of the heat affected zone (HAZ) resulting from single and dual torch mechanised pulsed gas metal arc welding (P-GMAW) has been achieved in an X80 line pipe. The continuous cooling of an X80 steel with initial acicular microstructure over Δt_8-5 from 2 to 50 s results in mixed bainite and martensite microstructure at fast cooling times, bainite at intermediate cooling times and granular bainite with bainite at longer cooling times. These phases were confirmed through optical and electron microscopy. The resulting transformation temperatures have been assembled and presented as a continuous cooling transformation diagram. The toughness of the steel was examined with Charpy impact specimens for three simulated HAZ cooling cycles, grain coarsened (GC HAZ), intercritically reheated grain coarsened (ICR GC HAZ) and an interrupted intercritically reheated grain coarsened (NTR ICR GC HAZ). The NTR ICR GC HAZ is a novel HAZ that can result from dual torch welding at fast travel speed and close torch spacing. All of the thermally simulated HAZ regions showed reduced toughness that was attributed to bainitic microstructure and large effective grain sizes.

On a effectué la simulation thermique de la zone affectée par la chaleur (HAZ) résultant du soudage mécanisé à arc pulsé, à chalumeau unique ou double sous protection gazeuse (P-GMAW), dans un tuyau de conduite X80. Le refroidissement en continu d’un acier X80 avec microstructure initiale aciculaire pour un Dt8-5 de 2 à 50 sec a pour résultat une microstructure mixte de bainite et de martensite à des temps rapides du refroidissement, de la bainite à des temps intermédiaires de refroidissement, et de la bainite granulaire avec de la bainite à de plus longs temps de refroidissement. On a confirmé ces phases par microscopie optique et électronique. On a assemblé les températures de transformation qui en résultaient et on les présente sous forme de diagramme de transformation en refroidissement continu. On a examiné la ténacité de l’acier avec des échantillons de résilience Charpy pour trois cycles simulés de refroidissement de l’HAZ, soit avec grossissement du grain (GC HAZ), re-chauffage intercritique et grossissement du grain (ICR GC HAZ) et re-chauffage intercritique interrompu et grossissement du grain (NTR ICR GC HAZ). L’HAZ NTR ICR GC est une nouvelle HAZ qui peut résulter du soudage à chalumeau double à vitesse de déplacement élevée et à faible espacement de chalumeau. Toutes les régions HAZ simulées thermiquement montraient une réduction de la ténacité, qui était attribuée à la microstructure bainitique et aux grandes tailles effectives du grain.     

Three-dimensional finite element modeling of gas metal-arc welding

The modeling of the gas metal-arc (GMA) welding process in three dimensions for moving heat sources has been attempted using the finite element method. The occurrence of finger penetration in the weldment resulting from a streaming type of metal transfer at high contents is explained by assuming that the heat content of transferring droplets is distributed in a certain volume of the workpiece below the arc. Volumetric distribution of the heat content of transferring droplets has been considered as an internal heat-generation term, and the differences between penetration characteristics in two cases of globular and streaming conditions of metal transfer have been analyzed. It is shown that weld penetration depends on the depth at which the droplets distribute their energy inside the workpieces. Temperature dependence of thermophysical properties,i.e., thermal conductivity and specific heat, has been included. Latent heat is incorporated by a direct iteration method. Heat losses from the plate caused by convection and radiation are also considered. The model is validated by predicting the weld-bead dimensions and comparing them with experimental data.     

A mathematical model of gas tungsten arc welding considering the cathode and the free surface of the weld pool

A two-dimensional axisymmetric numerical model, including the influence of the cathode and the free surface of the weld pool, is developed to describe the heat transfer and fluid flow in gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding. In the model, a boundary-fitted coordinate system is adopted to precisely describe the cathode shape and deformed weld-pool surface. The current continuity equation has been solved with the combined arc plasma-cathode system, independent of the assumption of current density distribution on the cathode surface, which was essential in the previous studies of arc plasma. It has been shown that the temperature profile, the current, and the heat flux to the anode show good agreement with the experimental data. Moreover, the current and the heat-flux distributions may be affected by the shape of the cathode and the free surface of the weld pool.     

火焰切割机控制系统的改进

火焰切割机在自动控制状态下切割钢坯时，易出现切割机部件损坏，切割介质消耗多的情况。对火焰切割机的PLC自动控制程序及控制系统中控制部件进行改进，实现了火焰切割机的高效可靠地切割钢坯，避免了火焰切割机部件的容易损坏状况，同时达到了节能降耗的目的。仅乙炔消耗，每年可节约100多万元的切割费用，取得了很好的改进效果。     

Distribution of the heat and current fluxes in gas tungsten arcs

The distribution of heat flux on a water-cooled copper anode as a function of welding process parameters has been determined experimentally following an experimental technique developed previously. The results indicate that arc length is the primary variable governing heat distribution and that the distribution is closely approximated by a gaussian function. The half width of the heat flux is defined by a distribution parameter, σ, which was determined from the experimental data and is expressed as a function of arc length, current, and electrode tip angle. The distribution parameter, σ, increases from 1.5 mm to 3.6 mm as the arc length increases from 2 mm to 9 mm for a 100 A arc. The experimental data also show that arc energy transfer efficiency is greater than 80 pct on the water-cooled anode which is much higher than has been measured in the presence of a molten metal pool. For this reason, it is believed that the distribution of the heat flux and not the magnitude is the most useful information obtained in this study. The effect of helium additions to the argon on the heat distribution is also reported. Formerly Research Assistant, is with the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA     

A Feasibility Study on Manufacturing of Functionally Graded Structures Using SiC Ceramic Powder in a Steel‐Based Matrix by Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

The paper presents a feasibility study on application of the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process to obtain metal composite functional coating for advanced tribological application. Silicon carbide (SiC) particles in the form of powder was added to a weld pool in autogenous mode as well as with an additional filler wire. Powder feeding was carried out at different angles and with varying separation distance from the welding torch. The metallurgical characterization of the cladded structure was carried out using optical as well as scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Energy dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy (EDS) was performed to analyze the composition of the deposited weld metal. It has been observed that due to low SiC density it was difficult for particles to penetrate the weld pool. Also the added SiC was found to be dissociated into Si and carbon (C) and the large amount of dissolved C in the weld pool resulted in formation of graphite phases.