Enhancement of the thermoelectric figure of merit in p- and n-type Cu/Bi-Te/Cu composites

The resultant thermoelectric properties of welded Cu/Bi-Te/Cu composites were measured at 298 K as a function of relative thickness x of Bi-Te compound by changing the interval s between two thermocouples and compared with those calculated as a function of x by treating it as an electrical and thermal circuit. These composites were prepared by welding with eutectic solder of Pb-Sn, after one end surface of the as-grown p- and n-type Bi-Te ingots were plated with Ni. It was found that the observed ZT of composites has a local maximum at an optimum x even when s was changed, as in the case of Cu/Bi-Sb/Cu and Ni/Bi-Sb/Ni composites with various relative thicknesses. Appearance of a local maximum in ZT is owing to the barrier thermo-emf generated by a sharp temperature drop at the interface between Bi-Te compound and copper. It may be caused by the separation of non-equilibrium carriers at the interface between them. The observed maximum ZT values at 298 K of the p- and n-type composites reached surprisingly great values of 1.53 and 1.66 at x=0.98, which correspond to about twice as large as those of commercially utilized Bi-Te compounds. This enhancement of ZT is available for generators, but may be not utilizable as a Peltier module. The composite materials were thus found to be utilizable as useful means of further increase in ZT of macroscopic bulk materials.     

Temperature dependence of the local Seebeck coefficient near the boundary in touching Cu/Bi–Te/Cu composites

The thermo-emf ΔV and temperature difference ΔT across the boundary were measured as functions of r and I for the touching p- and n-type Cu/Bi–Te/Cu composites composed of t _Bi–Te = 2.0 mm and t _Cu = 0.3 mm, where r is the distance from the boundary and I is a direct current producing ΔT which flows through two Peltier modules connected in series. The resultant Seebeck coefficient α across the boundary is obtained from the relation α = ΔV/ΔT. As a result, the resultant |α| of the touching p- and n-type composites have a great local maximum value at r ≈ 0.03 mm and decrease rapidly with further increase of r to approach the intrinsic |α_Bi–Te|. The maximum resultant α of the p- and n-type composites reached great values of 1,043 and −1,187 μV/K at 303 K corresponding to I = 0.8 A and of 1,477 and −725 μV/K at 360 K corresponding to I = 2.0 A. Reflecting the temperature dependence of the intrinsic α_Bi–Te, the maximum α of the p-type composite increases with an increase of T, while that of the n-type one decrease with an increase of T. Surprisingly, the maximum α of the p- and n-type composites have great gradients of 8.36 and −7.15 μV/K² in the range from 303 to 366 K, respectively, which are 21.8 and 134 times larger in absolute value than 0.383 and −0.0535 μV/K² of the intrinsic p- and n-type α_Bi–Te, so that the maximum resultant α was thus found to be much more sensitive to temperature than the intrinsic α_Bi–Te. Moreover, the local Seebeck coefficient α _l (r) derived analytically from the resultant α(r) is enhanced significantly in the narrow region below r ≈ 0.05 mm and the maximum α _l values of the p- and n-type composites were found to have extremely great values of approximately 1,800 μV/K at 360 K and −1,400 μV/K at 303 K, respectively, which are approximately 7.3 and 6.5 times higher in absolute value than the intrinsic p- and n-type α_Bi–Te at the corresponding temperatures.     

Effect of the thickness of Bi–Te compound and Cu electrode on the resultant Seebeck coefficient in touching Cu/Bi–Te/Cu composites

The resultant Seebeck coefficient α of the touching p- and n-type Cu/Bi–Te/Cu composites with different thicknesses of t _Bi–Te and t _Cu was measured as a function of t, where t _Bi–Te was varied from 0.1 to 2.0 mm, t _Cu from 0.3 to 4.0 mm and t is the lapse time after imposing the voltage. The temperature difference ΔT is produced by imposing a constant voltage of 1.70 V on two Peltier modules connected in series. The resultant α of composites was calculated from the relation α = ΔV/ΔT, where ΔV and ΔT were measured with two probes placed on both end coppers. ΔV decreases abruptly with an increase of t below t = 5 min, while above t = 7 min, it tends to saturate to a constant value. The resultant α and saturated ΔV vary significantly with changes in t _Cu and t _Bi–Te. When a composite has a combination of t _Cu = 1.0 mm and t _Bi–Te=0.1 mm, the generating powers ΔW (=(ΔV)²/4R) estimated using the saturated ΔV and calculated electrical resistance R for the p- and n-type composites have great local maximum values which are 4–5 times as large as those obtained for the conventional combination of t _Bi-Te = 2.0 mm and t _Cu = 0.3 mm. It is surprising that the generating power ΔW is enhanced significantly by sandwiching a very thin Bi–Te material between two thick coppers, unlike the conventional composition of thermoelectric modules. On the other hand, when a composite has a combination of t _Bi–Te = 0.1 mm and t _Cu = 0.3 mm, the resultant α of the p- and n-type composites exhibited great values of 711 and −755 μV/K, respectively, so that the maximum resultant ZT of the p- and n-type composites reached extremely large values of 8.81 and 5.99 at 298 K. However, the resultant ZT decreases rapidly with an increase of t _Cu or t _Bi–Te. The resultant ZT is thus found to be enhanced significantly not only in superlattice systems but also in macroscopic composites. The present enhancement in ZT is attributed to the large barrier thermo-emf generated in the Bi–Te region shallower than 50 μm from the boundary.     

Enhancement of the Seebeck coefficient in touching M/Bi–Te/M (M = Cu and Ni) composites

The resultant Seebeck coefficient α of the touching p- and n-type M/Bi–Te/M (M = Cu and Ni) composites was measured as a function of z at a scan step of 0.5 mm using thermocouples set at three different intervals of s = 4, 6.5 and 8 mm, where s is the interval between two probes and z is the distance from the center of Bi–Te compound to the middle of two thermocouples. Bi–Te compounds have a thickness of t _Bi–Te = 6 mm but the thickness t _M of both end metals sandwiching their compounds was varied from 0.5 mm to 6 mm. The composites were compacted tightly at a force of about 10 N by a ratchet. When two probes are placed on both end metals, the resultant α was significantly enhanced and exhibited a tendency to increase as s approaches t _Bi–Te, like the welded composites. The enhancement in α is attributed to the contribution from the barrier thermo-emf generated near the interface. When the thickness t ₀ of metal outside two probes set at s = 6.5 mm was increased from 0.25 mm to 5.75 mm, the averaged α for M = Cu and Ni was increased by 3.8% in the p-type composite, while reversely it was decreased by 4.8% in the n-type one. It was first observed that t ₀ also has a significant influence on the resultant α. The maximum α of the p- and n-type Ni/Bi–Te/Ni composites then reached great values of 264 μV/K at t _M = 6 mm (corresponding to t ₀ = 5.75 mm) and −280 μV/K at t _M = 1.2 mm (corresponding to t ₀ = 0.95 mm), respectively, which are 29% and 23% larger in absolute value than their intrinsic α values. These maximum α were barely changed with time. It was thus found that the barrier thermo-emf is generated steadily even in touching composites and the resultant α is highly sensitive to the position of leads connected to the metal electrode of a thermoelement.     

Al_2O_3/Cu复合材料的高温变形行为

采用Gleeble-1500热模拟试验机和透射电子显微镜研究了变形温度为300~900℃,应变速率为0.01~10s-1条件下Al_2O_3/Cu复合材料的高温流变行为和组织演变规律,并利用Arrhenius关系和Zener-Hollomn参数构建了合金的峰值屈服应力、变形温度和应变速率三者之间的本构方程。结果表明:Al_2O_3/Cu复合材料的流变应力-应变曲线为典型的动态再结晶类型,其曲线由加工硬化、动态软化和稳定流变3个阶段组成,当变形温度一定时,流变应力随应变速率的增大而增大,而当应变速率固定时,流变应力随变形温度的升高而减小;求解得到复合材料的结构因子lnA为15.2391,应力水平参数a为0.020788mm~2/N,应力指数n为5.933035,变形激活能Q为2.1697×10~5kJ/mol;随着变形温度的升高,基体内位错密度逐渐下降,并呈现出明显的再结晶特征,而当固定变形温度时,随着应变速率的增大,基体内位错密度呈先增大后下降趋势。基于微观组织演变和热加工图,Al_2O_3/Cu复合材料的最佳热加工参数范围为热加工温度500~850℃、应变速率低于0.1s-1。     

钨丝/铜合金复合材料高速撞击后的变形分析

为研究钨丝增强铜合金复合材料弹体撞击混凝土靶后的弹体变形,采用渗流铸造的方法将铜合金与钨丝相复合制备出钨丝增强铜合金复合材料,并用二级轻气炮来完成高速撞击试验,试验速度为2 km/s.撞击后对复合材料弹体宏观形貌进行了观察,发现弹体内部钨丝的排布发生了变化,呈现双曲线排布条纹.用数学和力学的方法对撞击后钨丝的排布方式变化进行了分析,发现钨丝排布的变化是由于钨丝束发生绕中心轴的扭转造成的,说明棒状弹体高速撞击混凝土靶时发生了扭转.     

负温下炭黑/树脂复合材料温度敏感特性

对纳米炭黑填充的树脂基导电复合材料负温下的温度响应进行了试验研究。试验发现,该导电复合材料在负温下具有正温度系数(PTC)特性,电阻值随温度的降低而降低,随温度的升高而升高。炭黑含量对其温度敏感性的影响是明显的,35%配方的温度灵敏度最好,随着炭黑含量增大,灵敏度逐渐降低。分析认为,树脂基材料的热胀冷缩是导致该复合材料热敏性的主要原因;炭黑含量越高,材料内部的导电网络越稳定,温度变化对电阻的影响越小。     

Stability of thermoviscous fluid flow under high temperature gradients

In present study the influence of temperature-dependent viscosity, i.e. thermoviscosity on the pressure-driven flow in inhomogeneous temperature field has been recalled. Such viscous stratification impacts on the velocity profile asymmetry, significantly increases the entry length, and causes the velocity inflection point to appear. In certain cases, particularly under high temperature differences of channel walls, the thermoviscosity generates instability that in a view of high local Reynolds numbers can create turbulent zones.     

Effect of temperature gradients and stress levels on damage of C/SiC composites in oxidizing atmosphere

Strain response of a C/SiC composite, which is cycled with ΔT₁ of 500 °C at 50 MPa, ΔT₂ of 400 °C at 100 MPa and ΔT₃ of 300 °C at 150 MPa, was investigated. Measured thermo-elastic strain ranges are found to retain 0.209% for ΔT₁, 0.168% for ΔT₂, and 0.122% for ΔT₃, independent upon the applied stress level. Non-linear variations of thermal cycling creep strain can reflect damage evolutions of the composites by changing its rate, which depends on temperature gradient and applied stress. After 104 thermal cycles, strength, modulus, and failure strain of the composites retain 60.29%, 84.2%, and 59% of the initial properties, respectively. The coating cracks of the cycled specimens are observed to be perpendicular to the applied stresses and arranged at relatively regular spacing, through which the fibers are oxidized superficially.     

The temperature field induced by the dynamic stresses of a transverse crack in periodically layered composites

The temperature field induced by the dynamic application of a far-field mechanical loading on a periodically layered material with an embedded transverse crack is investigated. To this end, the thermoelastically coupled elastodynamic and energy (heat) equations are solved by combining two approaches. In the first one, the dynamic representative cell method is employed for the construction of the time-dependent Green’s functions generated by the displacement jumps along the crack line. This is performed in conjunction with the application of the double finite discrete Fourier transform on the thermomechanically coupled equations. Thus the original problem for the cracked periodic composite is reduced to the problem of a domain with a single period in the transform space. The second approach is based on wave propagation analysis in composites where full thermomechanical coupling in the constituents exists. This analysis is based on the coupled elastodynamic-energy continuum equations where the transformed time-dependent displacement vector and temperature are expressed by second-order expansions, and the elastodynamic and energy equations and the various interfacial and boundary conditions are imposed in the average (integral) sense. The time-dependent thermomechanically coupled field at any observation point in the plane can be obtained by the application of the inverse transform. Results along the crack line as well as the full temperature field are given for cracks of various lengths for Mode I and Mode II deformations. In particular the temperature drops (cooling) at the vicinity of the crack’s tip and the heating zones at its surroundings are generated and discussed.     

Dielectric property of Cu powder/polymer composites

Dielectric property of Cu/polymer thermoplastic composites was measured in high frequencies up to 1 GHz. Generally relative permittivity and dielectric loss of the composites increased as the increasing metal inclusion loading as the percolation theory predicts. The incorporation of the copper inclusion with surface antirust layer raised relative permittivity of the composite from 2.3 to 21.3 at the loading level of 39.3 vol. % at 500 MHz. When copper oxide layer was introduced to the filler surface, estimated increase of relative permittivity was ca. 25 %. Since metal composites with ordered structure would raise the relative permittivity of the composites, the cause of this increase in relative permittivity in the present study can be attributable to reduced compatibility of the filler surface and the polymer matrix which lowers randomness of particle distribution. On the other hand, dielectric loss of the composite with surface oxidized Cu powder was increased by ca. 50 % compared to that of the anti-rusted powder composite. This would be caused by skin effect that part of the induced current flows through the less conductive surface oxide layer.     

镀钛金刚石／铜复合材料的热导率

采用粉末冶金法在高温热压炉中制备金刚石／铜复合材料,研究了钛镀层、烧结温度、金刚石颗粒体积分数对金刚石／铜复合材料热导率的影响。结果表明：钛镀层能改善金刚石／铜复合材料的界面浸润性,降低孔隙率,提高热导率。烧结温度低于980℃时,烧结驱动力不足,致使金刚石／铜复合材料的致密度下降,热导率降低;烧结温度高于980℃时,由...     

Thermal conductivity of Cu–Zr/diamond composites produced by high temperature–high pressure method

Copper matrix composites reinforced with about 90 vol.% of diamond particles, with the addition of zirconium to copper matrix, were prepared by a high temperature–high pressure method. The Zr content was varied from 0 to 2.0 wt.% to investigate the effect on interfacial microstructure and thermal conductivity of the Cu–Zr/diamond composites. The highest thermal conductivity of 677 W m⁻¹ K⁻¹ was achieved for the composite with 1.0 wt.% Zr addition, which is 64% higher than that of the composite without Zr addition. This improvement is attributed to the formation of ZrC at the interface between copper and diamond. The variation of thermal conductivity of the composites was correlated to the evolution of interfacial microstructure with increasing Zr content.     

Time and temperature dependent piezoresistance of carbon nanofiller/polymer composites under dynamic load

In this study, the behaviour of carbon nanotube/epoxy and carbon black/epoxy composites under dynamic load is studied via dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) in combination with DC electrical resistivity measurements. DMTA measurements are carried out at fixed temperature whilst the dynamic loading frequency is varied. With this procedure, a loading frequency-dependence of the phase shift between DC electrical resistance and mechanical elongation (δ _R–ε) is observed, although the force and elongation of the sample are still in phase. Moreover, the magnitude of this phase shift, as well as the amplitude of the DC electrical resistance change shows a clear dependence on the initial electrical conductivity of the samples. In addition, temperature sweeps are carried out to investigate the temperature dependency of the piezoresistance of the samples. An abrupt change in their sensitivity is observed as soon as the glass transition of the polymer is reached. However, the trend of the resistance change beyond the glass transition is substantially different between the nanocomposites containing carbon black and carbon nanotubes, revealing a strong influence of the network characteristics on the piezoresistive behaviour of these novel materials.     

Mechanical behavior of SiCf/SiC composites with alternating PyC/SiC multilayer interphases

In order to tailor the fiber–matrix interface of continuous silicon carbide fiber reinforced silicon carbide (SiC_f/SiC) composites for improved fracture toughness, alternating pyrolytic carbon/silicon carbide (PyC/SiC) multilayer coatings were applied to the KD-I SiC fibers using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method. Three dimensional (3D) KD-I SiC_f/SiC composites reinforced by these coated fibers were fabricated using a precursor infiltration and pyrolysis (PIP) process. The interfacial characteristics were determined by the fiber push-out test and microstructural examination using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The effect of interface coatings on composite mechanical properties was evaluated by single-edge notched beam (SENB) test and three-point bending test. The results indicate that the PyC/SiC multilayer coatings led to an optimum interfacial bonding between fibers and matrix and greatly improved the fracture toughness of the composites.     

A finite element analysis of fracture initiation in ductile/brittle periodically layered composites

A near-tip plane strain finite element analysis of a crack terminating at and normal to the interface in a laminate consisting of alternate brittle and ductile layers is conducted under mode-I loading. The studies are carried out for a system representing steel/alumina composite laminate. The Gurson constitutive model, which accounts for the ductile failure mechanisms of microvoid nucleation, growth and coalescence, is employed within the framework of small deformation plasticity theory. Evolution of plastic zone and damage in the ductile layer is monitored with increasing load. High plastic strain localization and microvoid damage accumulation are found to occur along the brittle/ductile interface at the crack-tip. Fracture initiation in the ductile phase is predicted and the conditions for crack renucleation in the brittle layer ahead of the crack are established for the system under consideration. Ductile fracture initiation has been found to occur before plasticity spreads in multiple ductile layers. Effects of material mismatch and yield strength on the plastic zone evolution are briefly discussed. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Enhancement of the thermoelectric power factor in Ag/Bi-Te/Ag composite devices

The resultant thermoelectric properties of the p- and n-type Ag/Bi-Te/Ag composite devices welded with pure Bi were measured at 298 K as a function of relative thickness of x, where x is the ratio of thickness of Bi-Te compound to the interval between two thermocouples and the chemical compositions of the p- and n-type Bi-Te compounds used here are (Bi_0.25Sb_0.75)₂Te₃ and Bi₂(Te_0.94Se_0.06)₃, respectively. Consequently, the electrical resistivities ρ of the p- and n-type Ag/Bi-Te/Ag devices increased linearly with an increase of x, while the Seebeck coefficients α were enhanced significantly in the range from x = 0.03 to 0.10, so that their observed P values have a large local maximum at x = 0.06. The x-dependence of P values was found to be explained roughly with the simple model proposed here when some reduction in the thermal conductivity κ of Ag and Bi was taken into the calculation. The maximum P of the p- and n-type Ag/Bi-Te/Ag devices reached extremely large values of 27.8 and 88.3 mW/K²m, which are higher than 25.7 mW/K²m obtained for the previous n-type Ni/Bi/Cu device.     

On the thermal conductivity of Cu–Zr/diamond composites

Interfaces and close proximity between the diamond and the metal matrix are very important for their thermal conductance performance. Matrix-alloying is a useful approach to greatly enhance the interfacial bonding and thermal conductivity. In this study, the copper–diamond (Cu/Dia) composites with addition of 0.8, 1.2 and 2.4 wt.% zirconium (Zr) are prepared to investigate the influence of minor addition of Zr on the microstructure and thermal conductivity of the composites. The thermal conductivity of the composites is analyzed both experimentally and theoretically. It is demonstrated that moderate interfacial modification due to the Zr added is beneficial to improve the thermal conductivity of the Cu/Dia composites.