Methods applied in Australian industry to evaluate coal mine slope stability

Strata failure is a principal hazard in open cut coal mining as it has the potential to cause multiple fatalities. Prior to the excavation of any slope, a geotechnical assessment should review the likely slope performance, including the risk of slope failure. Controls to manage this risk to an acceptable level should accompany the geotechnical analysis. A survey of 43 practising geotechnical engineers indicated that kinematic and 2D limit equilibrium analyses were the methods most commonly applied to analyse excavated slope stability. While these methods are well established and widely applied in the broad rock engineering disciplines(e.g. civil, hard rock), a recent review of over 60 slope failures suggests these methods have limited suitability for modelling the complex failure mechanisms observed in excavated coal mine slopes. Kinematic techniques do not adequately capture the rock mass component of excavated slope failure and do not provide a geospatial location of potential failure, while 2D limit equilibrium techniques do not adequately capture the 3D mechanisms of excavated slope failures. Methods which do consider the 3D mechanisms of slope failure are summarized for industry consideration and application.     

Quantitative hazard assessment system(Has-Q) for open pit mine slopes

Rock slope hazard assessment is an important part of risk analysis for open pit mines. The main parameters that can lead to rock slope failures are the parameters traditionally used in geomechanical classifications, the slope geometrical parameters and external factors like rainfall and blasting. This paper presents a methodology for a hazard assessment system for open pit mine slopes based on 88 cases collated around the world using principal components analysis, discriminant analysis and confidence ellipses. The historical cases used in this study included copper, gold, iron, diamond, lead and zinc, platinum and claystone mines. The variables used in the assessment methodology are uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock; spacing, persistence, opening, roughness, infilling and orientation of the main discontinuity set; weathering of the rock mass; groundwater; blasting method; and height and inclination of the pit. While principal component analysis was used to quantify the data, the discriminant analysis was used to establish a rule to classify new slopes about its stability condition. To provide a practical hazard assessment system, confidence ellipses were used to propose a hazard graph and generate the HAS-Q. The discriminant rule developed in this research has a high discrimination capacity with an error rate of11.36%.     

Comprehensive analysis of slope stability and determination of stable slopes in the Chador-Malu iron ore mine using numerical and limit equilibrium methods

One of the critical aspects in mine design is slope stability analysis and the determination of stable slopes. In the Chador Malu iron ore mine, one of the most important iron ore mines in central Iran, it was considered vital to perform a comprehensive slope stability analysis. At first, we divided the existing rock hosting pit into six zones and a geotechnical map was prepared. Then,the value of MRMR (Mining Rock Mass Rating) was determined for each zone. Owing to the fact that the Chador-Malu iron ore mine is located in a highly tectonic area and the rock mass completely crushed, the Hock-Brown failure criterion was found suitable to estimate geo-mechanical parameters. After that, the value of cohesion (c) and friction angle (e) were calculated for different geotechnical zones and relative graphs and equations were derived as a function of slope height. The stability analyses using numerical and limit equilibrium methods showed that some instability problems might occur by increasing the slope height.Therefore, stable slopes for each geotechnical zone and prepared sections were calculated and presented as a function of slope height.     

Probabilistic approach for open pit bench slope stability analysis——A mine case study

The geotechnical slope design of an open pit wall starts at the bench scale configuration. At this scale, the rock slope stability is governed primarily by the geological discontinuities within the rock mass and as a result, structurally-controlled failures(e.g. planar, wedge or toppling) are most likely to occur. The probabilistic approach offers a major advantage over the traditional deterministic method in that it accounts for the different degrees of variability and uncertainty often encountered in rock properties. This paper presents a bench slope stability assessment for an open pit mine in Peru using a probabilistic-based approach by coupling a kinematic analysis based on stereographic projection techniques followed by a kinetic analysis by means of the limit equilibrium method. Finally, these two probabilities are combined to provide an overall measure of the probability of failure(PoF) of the bench slope system. The case study is characterized by significant scatter in the geometrical and mechanical properties of the joints.Extensive surface mapping was conducted at 36 different sites following the ISRM suggested procedures.Several direct shear tests were carried out. It is shown that by combining field and laboratory measurements and engineering judgment, the probability density functions(PDF) of the discontinuity parameters can be obtained. These are then used in a Monte Carlo simulation process to compute both kinematic and kinetic probabilities of failure. The overall probability of failure aims to provide the design engineer with a tool to critically evaluate the bench performance from a geotechnical risk perspective and to provide a basis for future bench design optimization.     

Rapid and robust slope failure appraisal using aerial photogrammetry and 3D slope stability models

Slope failures are an inevitable aspect of economic pit slope designs in the mining industry. Large open pit guidelines and industry standards accept up to 30% of benches in open pits to collapse provided that they are controlled and that no personnel are at risk. Rigorous ground control measures including real time monitoring systems at TARP(trigger-action-response-plan) protocols are widely utilized to prevent personnel from being exposed to slope failure risks. Technology and computing capability are rapidly evolving. Aerial photogrammetry techniques using UAV(unmanned aerial vehicle) enable geotechnical engineers and engineering geologists to work faster and more safely by removing themselves from potential line-of-fire near unstable slopes. Slope stability modelling software using limit equilibrium(LE) and finite element(FE) methods in three dimensions(3D) is also becoming more accessible, user-friendly and faster to operate. These key components enable geotechnical engineers to undertake site investigations,develop geotechnical models and assess slope stability faster and in more detail with less exposure to fall of ground hazards in the field. This paper describes the rapid and robust process utilized at BHP Limited for appraising a slope failure at an iron ore mine site in the Pilbara region of Western Australia using a combination of UAV photogrammetry and 3D slope stability models in less than a shift(i.e. less than 12 h).     

高陡路堑边坡开挖稳定性评价及应用

针对高陡路堑边坡设计一般只简单采用极限平衡法进行成型边坡稳定性验算的现状,以广贺高速公路高陡路堑边坡为工程背景,采用数值分析方法对高速公路高陡路堑边坡施工开挖过程进行了模拟,对比分析了不支护与及时支护开挖过程的边坡稳定性,指出了开挖过程的危险阶段,分析了及时支护的效果与必要性,提出了施工优化步骤。结果表明:有限元计算可以实现边坡分层开挖分层加固施工工序的优化设计,锚固支护有效改善了边坡体受力状态与临界塑性应变特征。     

Stability and reinforcement analysis of rock slope based on elasto-plastic finite element method

The rigid body limit equilibrium method(RBLEM) and finite element method(FEM) are two widely used approaches for rock slope's stability analysis currently. RBLEM introduced plethoric assumptions; while traditional FEM relied on artificial factors when determining factor of safety(FOS) and sliding surfaces. Based on the definition of structure instability that an elasto-plastic structure is not stable if it is unable to satisfy simultaneously equilibrium condition, kinematical admissibility and constitutive equations under given external loads, deformation reinforcement theory(DRT) is developed. With this theory, plastic complementary energy(PCE) can be used to evaluate the overall stability of rock slope, and the unbalanced force beyond the yield surface could be the identification of local failure. Compared with traditional slope stability analysis approaches, the PCE norm curve to strength reduced factor is introduced and the unbalanced force is applied to the determination of key sliding surfaces and required reinforcement. Typical and important issues in rock slope stability are tested in TFINE(a three-dimensional nonlinear finite element program), which is further applied to several representatives of high rock slope's stability evaluation and reinforcement engineering practice in southwest of China.     

土石混合体边坡稳定性的三维颗粒离散元分析

为探究土石混合体边坡的稳定性和破坏机理,基于土工离心模型试验基本原理,结合已开发的不规则块石和土石混合体三维离散元建模方法建立土石混合体边坡细观结构的三维离散元模型.引入颗粒流强度折减法并提出基于能量演化的方法来判别边坡失稳破坏.利用提出的土石混合体边坡三维离散元建模方法和稳定性分析方法,分析不同块石含量、块石形状、空间结构、空间形态等因素对土石混合体边坡稳定性和破坏模式的影响,并揭示这些因素影响的细观机理.结果表明:随含石量增加,土石混合体边坡的安全系数逐渐增大;土石混合体边坡中呈现出多滑动面现象,且滑面较为曲折,具有明显的绕石特征,坡脚部位的部分大块石使得剪出口的位置发生明显的改变;随块石形状由球体、卵石到碎石,土石混合体边坡的安全系数逐渐增大;上覆堆积体相对较厚且坡度不是很大的二元结构边坡或一元结构边坡的破坏模式主要是堆积体内部发生的弧形滑动破坏,上覆堆积体厚度不大且基岩面相对平整的二元结构边坡的破坏模式主要是沿基-覆界面的整体平移滑动破坏;随土石混合体边坡空间形态由条带型、敞口型到锁口型,其安全系数逐渐提高,其中锁口型边坡具有显著的支撑拱效应,且含石量越大这种效应越明显.     

确定岩质边坡地震安全系数的新方法

地震作用下岩质边坡安全系数是一个随时间变化的函数,如何依据岩质边坡安全系数时程给出边坡在地震作用下的稳定性评价指标,这是一个尚未很好解决的工程难题.基于显式波动有限元方法,给出了岩质边坡动力安全系数时程的计算方法,并引入可靠度的概念,提出了新的边坡动力稳定性评价指标-可靠度动力安全系数,给出了相应的计算方法,即边坡的可靠度动力安全系数等于边坡安全系数时程的平均值减去边坡安全系数时程的标准差与工程可接受的可靠度的乘积,使边坡的动力稳定性评价与工程可接受的风险紧密结合起来.将其应用于某岩质边坡,并与拟静力法的结果进行了比较.结果表明,所提出的边坡动力稳定性评价指标能够较好地考虑工程风险,其计算方法是可靠的,可直接应用实际工程.     

基于蒙特卡洛法的黄延高速公路边坡稳定性分析

将破坏概率理论应用于边坡稳定性分析中,借助GEO-SLOPE程序,采用蒙特卡洛法(Monte Carlo Method),以Janbu法为功能函数对黄延高速公路界子河边坡在自然状态和饱水状态下进行可靠性分析。计算结果表明,在自然状态条件下,该边坡的破坏概率为30.97%,在饱水状态条件下为100%。水是影响本边坡稳定性最不利的因素之一,应切实加强该边坡的防水措施。     

Utilising the scientific method to demonstrate that slender beam/column behaviour is the dominant behavioural mechanism leading to roof/rib failure

As per most other earth science engineering problems, the underground coal geotechnical environment and the way in which roof and rib support interacts with the rock mass are complex issues. It is therefore generally recognised that without prudent simplification, the complexity of the problem will overwhelm all current geotechnical methods of modelling, not least for the reason that a rock mass can never be characterised to a level that allows a ‘‘non-simplified" analysis. The fact that numerical models, which are commonly purported to be a ‘‘simulation" tool and the so-called epitome of advanced geotechnical engineering, always need to be ‘‘calibrated" to a known reality is taken to be conclusive proof of this statement. While the problem should not be oversimplified(i.e. the dominant failure mechanisms or critical data input parameters should not be ignored), without question judicious simplification is at the heart of all engineering design, to the point that it has a well-established name –‘‘reductionism". The hypothesis addressed in this paper, is that horizontal and vertical stress-driven slender beam and column behaviour(which includes unstable Euler Buckling) are respectively the dominant(but not only) roadway roof and ribline behavioural mechanism that(if not controlled) can lead to excessive deformation,failure and eventual collapse. As a part of the Scientific Method, a hypothesis can only be tested via real-world observations, measurements and analyses in establishing it is a credible Theory. Utilising the Scientific Method, this paper demonstrates that slender beam/column behaviour is the dominant instability mechanism within a coal mine roof/rib subject to elevated horizontal/vertical stress conditions and therefore, must be representatively accounted for in any credible empirical, analytical, or numerical approach to coal mine roof/rib stability assessment and associated ground support design.     

基于随机场的岩石边坡三维稳定性分析

基于随机场理论,考虑了岩石材料属性的空间变异性对岩石边坡稳定性的影响,将边坡主滑面上的摩擦系数和粘聚力视为高斯随机变量,确定了主滑面上的摩擦系数和粘聚力的均值、方差和协方差,获得了两个随机量之间的相关系数和互相关长度。在此基础上,对岩石边坡进行了三维稳定性分析,确定了岩石边坡的稳定系数和失效概率。数值计算结果表明,摩擦系数和粘聚力的空间变异性对边坡稳定性有重要影响。     

Coal mine roof rating(CMRR), rock mass rating(RMR) and strata control:Carborough Downs Mine,Bowen Basin,Australia

The rock mass rating(RMR) has been used across the geotechnical industry for half a century. In contrast,the coal mine roof rating(CMRR) was specifically introduced to underground coal mines two decades ago to link geological characterization with geotechnical risk mitigation. The premise of CMRR is that strength properties of mine roof rock are influenced by defects typical of coal measures stratigraphy.The CMRR has been used in longwall pillar design, roof support methods, and evaluation of extended cuts,but is rarely evaluated. Here, the RMR and CMRR are applied to a longwall coal mine. Roof rock mass classifications were undertaken at 67 locations across the mine. Both classifications showed marked spatial variability in terms of roof conditions. Normal and reverse faulting occur across the mine, and while no clear relationships exist between rock mass character and faulting, a central graben zone showed heterogeneous rock mass properties, and divergence between CMRR and RMR. Overall, the CMRR data fell within the broad envelope of results reported for extended cuts at Australian and U.S. coal mines. The corollary is that the CMRR is useful, and should not be used in isolation, but rather as a component of a strata control programme.     

Effects of nonlinear strength parameters on stability of 3D soil slopes

Actual slope stability problems have three-dimensional(3D) characteristics and the soils of slopes have curved failure envelopes. This incorporates a power-law nonlinear failure criterion into the kinematic approach of limit analysis to conduct the evaluation of the stability of 3D slopes. A tangential technique is adopted to simplify the nonlinear failure criterion in the form of equivalent Mohr-Coulomb strength parameters. A class of 3D admissible rotational failure mechanisms is selected for soil slopes including three types of failure mechanisms: face failure, base failure, and toe failure. The upper-bound solutions and corresponding critical slip surfaces can be obtained by an efficient optimization method. The results indicate that the nonlinear parameters have significant influences on the assessment of slope stability, especially on the type of failure mechanism. The effects of nonlinear parameters appear to be pronounced for gentle slopes constrained to a narrow width. Compared with the solutions derived from plane-strain analysis, the 3D solutions are more sensitive to the values of nonlinear parameters.     

福建高速公路边坡岩土体质量评价方法

福建省高速公路边坡上部为土下部为岩,整体稳定状态良好,为对在开挖后及支护前后出现局部滑塌现象的岩土边坡进行快速、准确的稳定性评价,基于极限平衡法,提出一种适合于岩土边坡岩土体质量评价的方法,首次综合岩和土的质量评价方法对边坡稳定性进行分析,扩充了边坡岩体分级的范畴．用该法评价福建省7条高速公路的102个边坡,结果与实际...     

Application of open-pit and underground mining technology for residual coal of end slopes

Given the conditions of residual coal from the boundary of a flat dipping open-pit mine,which uses strip areas mining and inner dumping with slope-covering,we propose an open-pit and underground integrated mining technology for residual coal of end slopes.In the proposal a conveyance road and ventilation conveyance near the slope are built,corresponding to the pit mining area and the surface coal mine dump,as well as an interval haulage tunnel and air-inlet tunnel.The outcome shows that such mining method may reduce the effect to slope stability from underground mining,it does not affect the dumping advance and has a high recovery rate of residual coal resources.The working face is timbered by single hydraulic props,transported by a scraper conveyor and supported by coal walls.This method of mining is one of layered top coal caving,with high resource recovery,low production cost where positive economic benefit can be realized.     

Determination of the Stable Slope Configuration of Oval-Shaped Furrow Pits

The space effects of oval-shoped furrow pit slopes were analyzed by the elastic mechanics principle. The interaction of limit equilibrium slope angle, friction coefficient, cohesion and horizontal radius of oval-shaped furrow, pits has been derived. The oral trumpet-like rock mass is homogeneous and elastic while only loaded by its dead weight. The interaction indicates that the deeper an oral-shaped furrow pit is excavated, the greater the limit equilibrium slope angle. Both the theory base for reducing stripping waste rock in an oval- shaped furrow pit and the basic way to determine the configuration of a stable slope were developed from the mentioned interaction.The theory includes the preceding principles of stability analysis of slopes. Compared with the configuration determined by traditional theory of slope stability, a great quantity of stripping waste rock can be reduced by that determined in this paper trader stable conditions.     

基于椭球模型的岩坡稳定非概率可靠评价研究

在考虑影响因素的不确定性条件下, 快速有效地评价岩坡的稳定状态成为目前研究的热点。传统概率可靠方法评价要求数据充足且服从某种概率分布, 工程中难以实测大量数据支持, 从而阻碍了该方法的推广应用。本文针对以上不足, 结合平面滑动型岩坡在只需确定变化范围的前提下应用椭球模型表达不确定影响因素的变异性质, 采用相应的非概率可靠指标评价了岩石边坡的稳定状态, 与蒙特卡洛模拟法计算结果的对比显示两种评价结果一致。基于椭球模型的非概率可靠评价方法所需数据量小, 计算简便快捷, 在岩坡稳定问题的评价中具有一定的适用性。       

Deformation and failure characteristics of anchorage structure of surrounding rock in deep roadway

This paper investigated the stress evolution, displacement field, local deformation and its overall distribution, and failure characteristics of the anchorage structure of surrounding rock with different rockbolt spacing through the model experiments. The influences of the pre-tightening force and spacing of rockbolt on the support strength of the anchorage structure of surrounding rock were analyzed by the simulation using FLAC3D numerical software. The support scheme of the excavated roadway was then designed, and the effectiveness of this support scheme was further verified by the displacement measurement of the roadway. The results showed that the maximum displacement between the roof and floor of the west wing track roadway in Kouzidong coal mine, China is about 42 mm, and the maximum displacement between its both sides is about 72 mm, indicating that the support scheme proposed in this study can ensure the stability and safety of the excavated roadway.     

Effect of rock mass structure and block size on the slope stability--Physical modeling and discrete element simulation

This paper studies the stability of jointed rock slopes by using our improved three-dimensional discrete element methods (DEM) and physical modeling. Results show that the DEM can simulate all failure modes of rock slopes with different joint configurations. The stress in each rock block is not homogeneous and blocks rotate in failure development. Failure modes depend on the configuration of joints. Toppling failure is observed for the slope with straight joints and sliding failure is observed for the slope with staged joints. The DEM results are also compared with those of limit equilibrium method (LEM). Without considering the joints in rock masses, the LEM predicts much higher factor of safety than physical modeling and DEM. The failure mode and factor of safety predicted by the DEM are in good agreement with laboratory tests for any jointed rock slope.