Evaluation of the maximum spread and the force for a drawing process through flat rolls

Roll drawing is a metal forming process that, unlike classical drawing, allows us to obtain a reduction in the metal wire section with a notable reduction in the forces and without thermal or chemical treatment of the wires. Unlike the traditional process, there is, however, a lack of knowledge as regards the main process parameters.In the following study, FEM analyses were carried out to verify the suitability of two analytical models for evaluating the maximum spread of the wires and the drawing force for a drawing process through flat rolls of steel wires. Experimental tests then highlighted the suitability of these analytical models, potentially valuable tools for the determination of drawing parameters and the on-line control of the process.     

Experimental and Finite Element Investigation of Roll Drawing Process

In this research, the wire drawing process with flat roller dies is investigated. A prototypal apparatus is developed to conduct experimental tests on such a process and analyze the influence of main roll drawing parameters (e.g., incoming wire diameter, forming rolls diameter, thickness reduction, and friction conditions) on geometrical characteristics of flattened wires. A finite element model (FEM) is developed to simulate the deformation of the wire during the process. Within the entire range of experiments, a good agreement between experimental data and numerical results is found which allows validating the FE model. A further observation from the experimental program and numerical simulations is that a complicated dependence of the lateral spread of wire and width of contact area on process parameters exists during wire drawing with roller dies.     

HOCr17Ni6Mn3钢丝电塑性拉拔的研究

研究了脉冲电流对HOCr17Ni6Mn3钢丝室温拉拔过程的影响结果表明，施加脉冲电流可使钢丝的拉拔力显著下降，最大降低幅值达40％．实验结果还表明，施加脉冲电流大大提高了钢丝的塑性变形能力、显著减缓了钢丝的加工硬化速度，使该钢丝在脉冲电流的作用下可从直径2．0mm拉拔至直径0．255mm而无需退火，拉拔钢丝的力学性能实验结果表明，电塑性拉拔后的钢丝的抗拉强度下降     

Effect of roller die drawing on structure, texture and other properties of high carbon steel wires

In the work the effect of application of roller dies in process of drawing of high carbon steel wires for their structure, texture, residual stresses, surface roughness and mechanical properties has been investigated. Among structural features alignment of cementite lamellae to the wire axis by means of SEM and Pericolor 1500 has been quantitatively determined. Degree of cementite lamellae fracture in colonies parallel to wire axis has been estimated by Langford method. Obtained results were compared with those structural features for conventionally and hydrodynamically drawn wires. It has been found that degree of alignment of cementite lamellae in wires drawn in roller dies was smaller than in wires drawn conventionally and hydrodynamically but in the case of fracture degree the opposite result was noticed. Residual stresses were determined by electrochemical reversal pickling in water solution of sulphuric acid. A significant drop of longitudinal residual stresses in surface layer of wires drawn in roller die has been observed as compared to those stresses for conventionally and hydrodynamically drawn wires. Surface roughness of wires was measured with FORM TALYSURF profilographometer. It has been proved thad roller die drawing has formed very smooth surface with much smaller longitudinal and circumferential roghness parameters that for surface of wires drawn conventionally and hydrodynamically. In the work the tensile, yield and fatigue strength of tested wires were determined. It has been concluded that roller die drawing has many advantages as compared to conventional process and should be implemented in wire industry for larger scale.     

Application of cold drawn lamellar microstructure for developing ultra-high strength wires

Composite materials having lamellar structure are known to have a good combination of high strength and ductility. They are widely used in the fields of automobiles, civil engineering and construction, machines and many other industries. An application of lamellar microstructure for developing ultra-high strength steel wires was studied and discussed. Based on the experimental results, the relationships between the strength increase and microstructure development during the cold wire drawing were studied to reveal the strengthening mechanism. As cold drawing proceeds, the wire strength extremely increases, the microstructure changes from large single crystal lamellar structure to very fine polycrystalline lamellar one which has nano-sized grains, high dislocation density and amorphous regions. From the results obtained, it is concluded that heavy cold drawing technique is an effective method for lamellar composite to get high strength wires. Furthermore, formation process of the best microstructure for producing the ultra-high strength wires was also discussed.     

Microstructure evolution in pearlitic steels during wire drawing

Major processes affecting microstructure of a drawn pearlitic wire including lamellae thinning, changes in inter-lamellar interface and metallographic and crystallographic texture, plastic flow localization, and dynamic strain aging were characterized. Heavily drawn pearlite represents a nano-composite with thickness of ferrite and cementite lamellae decreasing during wire drawing. Volume fraction of inter-phase interfaces is comparable with that of pearlitic cementite and they are associated with high elastic stresses. Stretching and rotation of pearlite colonies result in their alignment with the wire axis. This is accompanied by increase in a local ductility at the true strain below from 1.5 to 2 and then decrease at higher strain levels. Development of a strong crystallographic texture causes anisotropy in mechanical properties. Targeted observations of plastic flow at the same region showed two systems of localized shear bands and provided information on their development. A dramatic decrease in elongation to failure in wires after drawing is linked to the existence of the localized shear bands. Dynamic strain aging increases strength and degrades ductility of drawn wires.     

Residual stress characteristics in a non-circular drawing sequence of pearlitic steel wire

In this paper, characteristics of residual stress in pearlitic steel wire drawn by a non-circular drawing (NCD) sequence with two processing routes, NCDA and NCDB, were experimentally and numerically investigated up to the 12th pass in comparison with conventional wire drawing (WD). For experimental investigation of the axial residual stress at the surface of the drawn wire, destructive (deflection) and non-destructive methods were employed. According to the experimental results, axial surface residual stress of the drawn wire by the NCD sequence was lower and more homogeneous compared to the conventional WD. Based on the elasto-plastic numerical simulation results from the surface to the center of the drawn wire using a commercial DEFORM-3D, an empirical relationship between residual stress and reduction of area was determined to predict the residual stress evolution in the multi-pass WD, NCDA, and NCDB, in that order. From the results of this investigation, it can be construed that the NCD sequence, especially the NCDB, might be helpful in improving the residual stress characteristics of pearlitic steel wire to improve its mechanical behavior and service life.     

Study on Anisotropic Mechanical Properties of Cold Drawn Pearlitic Steel WireEI北大核心CSCD

Cold drawn pearlitic steel wires with ultra-high strength are widely applied in industrial fields such as bridge cables, automobile tire and springs rope. In recent years, the strengthening mechanism and microstructure evolution have been profoundly studied. In order to investigate the influence of microstructure evolution on mechanical properties, the anisotropic mechanical properties of cold drawn pearlitic steel wires were investigated by tensile test, SEM and TEM. Results indicated that the distinctions of tensile strength between three directions (parallel to the tensile axis, inclined to the tensile axis (45 degrees), vertical to the tensile axis) were amplified with increasing strain. The effect of strain strengthening was observed in parallel and inclined directions while the vertical direction remained strength stability in 1320 MPa. The wire rod was isotropic and the fracture mode was transgranular fracture; After cold drawing, the tensile strength reached peaks in parallel direction and valleys in vertical direction. The fracture mechanism of inclined and vertical directions remained transgranular or intergranular fracture while the fracture mechanism of parallel direction was converted into microvoid accumulation fracture. In TEM, the phenomenon was discovered that due to non-homogeneous distribution in vertical direction, dislocations piled up at the boundaries resulting in stress concentration. On the contrary, the dislocations were uniformly distributed which led to homogeneous transformation in parallel direction.     

冷拉珠光体钢丝的组织演变及性能变化

研究了冷拉70钢的组织演变和性能变化。结果表明，随应变量的提高，70钢的抗拉强度和硬度均提高。抗拉强度、硬度与真应变之间呈线性关系。利用场发射扫描电镜（FEM）对70钢冷拉变形过程中的组织演变进行了分析。变形过程中珠光体团发生转动，取向与拉拔轴线趋于一致，渗碳体经历了弯曲、剪切、拉伸等变形，形变量较大时渗碳体大量溶解。     

冷拉珠光体钢丝的组织演变及性能变化

研究了冷拉70钢的组织演变和性能变化。结果表明,随应变量的提高,70钢的抗拉强度和硬度均提高,抗拉强度、硬度与真应变之间呈线性关系。利用场发射扫描电镜(FEM)对70钢冷拉变形过程中的组织演变进行了分析。变形过程中珠光体团发生转动,取向与拉拔轴线趋于一致,渗碳体经历了弯曲、剪切、拉伸等变形,形变量较大时渗碳体大量溶解。     

On the deformation of bimetal wires by drawing

In this study the bimetal wire drawing process is investigated both experimentally and theoretically. Three coating materials, namely copper and the brasses Ms63 and Ms70 are considered in combination with steel St37 wire core. This paper explores some of the unusual effects of the lubrication when drawing a steel wire clad with soft copper. This is explained and discussed using both force equilibrium equations of a generalized deformation mode as well as experimental measurements of the drawing force, strains and microhardness of each constituent of the bimetal wire.     

Anisotropic stress corrosion cracking behaviour of prestressing steel

This paper evaluates the anisotropic stress corrosion cracking behaviour of high-strength prestressing steel wires. To this end, two eutectoid steels in the form of hot rolled bar and cold drawn wire were subjected to stress corrosion cracking tests in aqueous environments using a constant strain technique and precracked three point bend specimens to measure the crack growth rate da/dt as a function of the stress intensity factor K_I under hydrogen embrittlement environmental conditions (pH = 12.5 E = − 1200 mV SCE). While the hot rolled bar presents an isotropic stress corrosion cracking behaviour associated with mode I crack growth, the cold drawn wire exhibits a change in crack propagation direction approaching that of the wire axis (cold drawing direction) and producing mixed mode crack growth. This anisotropic stress corrosion cracking behaviour is a consequence of manufacturing, since cold drawing affects the microstructure of the material and produces a preferential orientation of the pearlite lamellae aligned parallel to the wire axis. The differences of crack growth rate as a function of the crack propagation direction are discussed.     

Finite element simulation on the deep drawing of titanium thin-walled surface part

The deep drawing of titanium thin-walled surface part was simulated based on a self-developed three-dimensional finite element model. After an investigation on forming rules, a virtual orthogonal experimental design was adopted to determine the significance of processing parameters, such as die radius, blank holder force, and friction coefficient, on the forming process. The distributions of thickness and equivalent plastic strain of the drawn part were evaluated. The results show that die radius has a relative major influence on the deep drawing process, followed by friction coefficient and blank holder force.     

Numerical study on the evolution of surface defects in wire drawing

In this study, a three-dimensional finite element analysis for multi- or single-pass wire drawing was carried out in order to evaluate the deformation behavior of various surface defects, such as longitudinal, transverse, oblique, and round, introduced during the manufacturing processes. For numerical simulations, a free surface contact treatment algorithm was employed to suppress node penetration by applying a penalty method. Simulation results were compared with the experimental data obtained by optical microscopy for multi-pass drawing samples of the medium carbon steel wire with a longitudinal round-type defect in terms of variation of the load requirement and evolution of the cross-sectional shape of the surface defect. Additional numerical studies were carried out to investigate changes of cross-sectional shapes of various surface defects depending on stress distributions in the single-pass wire drawing. It was found that the radial and circumferential stress components determined the final shape and aspect ratio of the defect. The current numerical approach can be helpful in determining a guideline to assess the acceptability of the surface quality of the drawn wire for the secondary manufacturing process based on the available data in the literature.     

Hierarchical structures in cold-drawn pearlitic steel wire

The microstructure and crystallography of drawn pearlitic steel wires have been quantified by a number of electron microscopy techniques including scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction and nanobeam diffraction, with focus on the change in the structure and crystallography when a randomly oriented cementite structure in a patented wire during wire drawing is transformed into a lamellar structure parallel to the drawing axis. Changes in the interlamellar spacing and in the misorientation angle along and across the ferrite lamellae show significant through-diameter variations in wires drawn to large strains ? 1.5. The structural evolution is hierarchical as the structural variations have their cause in a different macroscopic orientation of the cementite in the initial (patented) structure with respect to the wire axis. The through-diameter variations subdivide the lamellar structure into two distinctly different types: one (called A_A) has a smaller interlamellar spacing and smaller dislocation density than the other (called A_BC). During drawing, the thickness of the ferrite and cementite lamellae are reduced to 20 and 2 nm, respectively, and high-angle boundaries form in the A_BC structure parallel to the cementite lamellae. The structural and crystallographic analyses suggest that boundary strengthening and dislocation strengthening are important mechanisms in the cold-drawn wire. However, differences in structural parameters between the A_A and the A_BC structure may affect the relative contributions of the two mechanisms to the total flow stress.     

冷拔60Si2MnA钢丝的高强脉冲电流处理

由于加工硬化效应的影响,金属材料在发生塑性变形后其强度会增加.因此,冷拔钢丝的强度远高于拉拔前钢丝的强度,同时塑性变形能力远低于拉拔变形前.已发生较大拉拔变形的钢丝若需要进一步拉拔,常常需要采用高温退火方法来降低冷拔钢丝的强度和增加其塑性变形能力.本文将报道一种新的、可用于原位处理冷拔钢丝的高强脉冲电流处理方法.结果表明,在脉冲电流处理可使一种冷拔弹簧钢丝的强度显著降低,且塑性变形能力大幅增加.采用200 Hz的脉冲电流处理该冷拔弹簧钢丝1 min后,其力学性能与该钢丝在700℃条件下退火1 h后的力学性能相似.研究结果表明,高强脉冲电流处理方法是一种能使已发生加工硬化的金属材料有效软化的新方法.     

Influence of residual stresses and strains generated by cold drawing on hydrogen embrittlement of prestressing steels

Hydrogen embrittlement plays an important role in environmental cracking of prestressing steel wires. The ammonium thiocyanate test (ATT) was implemented as a standard for determination of their susceptibility to environmentally assisted fracture. However, ATT reveals neither how hydrogen induced fracture (HIF) goes on in steel nor the roles of important manufacturing and service factors. To this end, the knowledge of the residual stresses and plastic strains in wires due to cold drawing, as well as the hydrogenation from harsh environments, are the keys to successful predictions of wire lives. This paper advances previous analyses of HIF in cold drawn prestressing wires via numerical modelling, firstly, of the cold drawing process to obtain the distributions of residual stresses and plastic strains, and secondly, of the stress-strain assisted hydrogen diffusion in wires towards creation the conditions for HIF nucleation. Generated results prove the relevant role of residual stress-and-strain field in hydrogen diffusion in the wires, as well as their possible consequences for HIF.     

Dieless drawing steel wires using a dielectric heating method and modeling the process dynamics

Modern industries require the production of multi-functional, inorganic, micron-sized metal wires. This study suggests a novel method that could potentially offer a highly efficient dieless drawing technology for manufacturing thin stainless steel fibers. The method is based on a hot-working principle, using microwaves as the heat source and SiC as the susceptor. Experimental trials with a laboratory rig showed that the new system worked effectively for drawing the stainless steel wires and should be able to realize the diameter attenuation with a diameter reduction of up to 21%. The theoretical model describing the deformation behavior of the stainless steel wires in the working zone along with the constitutive equation of Bingham model modified with a power law and Zener–Hollomon parameter turned out to match very good with the actual results of the experiment. The coefficient of variation of the drawn wire diameter increased, as the draw ratio increased, which could be attributed to the occurrence of the narrow necking zone.     

Three-dimensional characteristics analysis of the wire-tool vibration considering spatial temperature field and electromagnetic field in WEDM

In this paper, a three-dimensional multi-physics coupling model (thermal model, electromagnetic field model and structural model) is proposed for analyzing and controlling the vibration of wire electrode in cutting thin plate process. Firstly, a three-dimensional thermal model is developed to evaluate temperature distribution of wire electrode considering heat convection and heat conduction, and the numerical solutions of wire temperature increment are performed under different process parameters. Secondly, the mechanism of electromagnetic force acting on wire tool is clarified in detail, and a spacial finite element method (FEM) program is designed to analyze the electromagnetic field considering electromagnetic induction. Then, combining thermal model with electromagnetic field model, and conventional structural model, a multi-physics coupling model is established to acquire the frequency and amplitude of wire vibration under random multiple-spark discharges. Furthermore, the simulational results of multi-physics coupling model on wire vibration show a good agreement with experimental data, and the influencing rules of processing parameters on wire vibration are also illustrated to seek the best parameter combination. Eventually, three practical methods are presented to restrain wire vibration performance, and the significant effects on suppressing the wire vibration and improving geometric accuracy have been obtained.     

退火工艺对T2纯铜线材组织和性能的影响

通过冷拉拔塑性成形制备了T2纯铜线材,然后对其进行了400 ℃×60 min低温长时退火和850 ℃×(20,40,60) s高温短时退火试验。通过光学显微镜、扫描电镜、万能试验机和直流双臂电桥等,研究了不同状态线材的微观组织、力学和电学性能。研究表明:拉拔态纯铜线材的纤维状组织在退火后形成了再结晶晶粒,并伴有退火孪晶出现。随着850 ℃退火保温时间的增加,退火线材的再结晶晶粒不断长大,晶粒形貌更趋向等轴晶,组织均匀性得到提高。退火态线材的平均抗拉强度约是拉拔态的57.1%;断后伸长率约是拉拔态10倍;经400 ℃×60 min退火,其导电率比拉拔态线材仅提高约0.3%;经850 ℃×(20,40,60) s退火其平均导电率比拉拔态线材提高约5.2%。高温短时退火后线材的综合力学性能和电学性能不仅比低温长时退火的性能较优,而且其具有较高的退火效率。拉拔态线材经850 ℃×40 s高温短时退火后具有较高的综合力学性能和导电性能。