Forgivingness,anger, and hostility in aggressive driving

This study was aimed at investigating the relationship between trait forgivingness, general anger, hostility, driving anger, and self-reported aggressive driving committed by the driver him/herself (“self” scale) and perceiving him/herself as an object of other drivers’ aggressive acts (“other” scale). The Slovak version of questionnaires was administrated to a sample of 612 Slovak and Czech drivers. First, the factor structure of the Driver Anger Indicators Scale (DAIS) was investigated. Factor analyses of the self and other parts of the DAIS resulted in two factors, which were named as aggressive warnings and hostile aggression and revenge. Next, the results showed that from all dependent variables (scales of the DAIS), self-reported aggressive warnings (self) on the road were predicted best by chosen person-related factors. The path model for aggressive warnings (self) suggested that trait forgivingness and general anger were fully mediated by driving anger whereas hostility proved to be a unique predictor of aggressive behavior in traffic. Driving anger was found to be the best predictor of perceptions that other drivers behave aggressively.     

The expression of anger amongst Turkish taxi drivers

The present study tested the four factor structure of the DAX on a sample of Turkish taxi drivers and the relationship these factors had with a number of other variables. Confirmatory Factor Analysis found that the data broadly fit the four factor solution of the DAX. These factors included three aggressive expressions: Verbal Aggressive Expression; Personal Physical Aggressive Expression; Use of a Vehicle to Express anger, and one Adaptive/Constructive factor. Driving experience was negatively related to the three types of aggressive expression. The Total Aggressive Expression was positively related to annual mileage and preferred driving speed, but negatively related to age and experience. The present research also found that the three aggressive types of anger expression were significantly related to potentially crash related conditions, such as losing control of the vehicle, loss of concentration and near-misses. However, none of the DAX factors was significantly related to either minor or major crashes.     

The association between driving anger and driving outcomes: A meta-analysis of evidence from the past twenty years

Through the use of meta-analysis, this study investigated the relationships between driving anger and five types of driving outcomes (aggressive driving, risky driving, driving errors, near misses and accidents). The moderating effects of three variables (age, study publication year, and participants’ country of origin) on these relationships were also examined. A total of 51 studies published over the past two decades met the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis. The results showed that driving anger significantly predicted all three types of aberrant driving, with zero-order correlations of 0.312, 0.243, and 0.179 with aggressive driving, risky driving and driving errors, respectively. The correlations between driving anger and accident-related conditions, though at relatively weaker levels, were still statistically significant. Tests for effects of the moderating variables suggested that driving anger was a stronger predictor of risky driving among young drivers than among old drivers. Also, the anger–aggression association was found to decrease over time and vary across countries. The implications of the results and the directions for future research are discussed.     

Dimensions of driving anger and their relationships with aberrant driving

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between driving anger and aberrant driving behaviours. An internet-based questionnaire survey was administered to a sample of Chinese drivers, with driving anger measured by a 14-item short Driving Anger Scale (DAS) and the aberrant driving behaviours measured by a 23-item Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ). The results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis demonstrated that the three-factor model (hostile gesture, arrival-blocking and safety-blocking) of the DAS fitted the driving anger data well. The Exploratory Factor Analysis on DBQ data differentiated four types of aberrant driving, viz. emotional violation, error, deliberate violation and maintaining progress violation. For the anger–aberration relation, it was found that only “arrival-blocking” anger was a significant positive predictor for all four types of aberrant driving behaviours. The “safety-blocking” anger revealed a negative impact on deliberate violations, a finding different from previously established positive anger–aberration relation. These results suggest that drivers with different patterns of driving anger would show different behavioural tendencies and as a result intervention strategies may be differentially effective for drivers of different profiles.     

Driving anger in Ukraine: Appraisals,not trait driving anger,predict anger intensity while driving

Trait driving anger is often, but not always, found to predict both the intensity of anger while driving and subsequent crash-related behaviours. However, a number of studies have not found support for a direct relationship between one's tendency to become angry and anger reported while driving, suggesting that other factors may mediate this relationship. The present self-report study investigated whether, in anger provoking driving situations, the appraisals made by drivers influence the relationship between trait and state anger. A sample of 339 drivers from Ukraine completed the 33-item version of the Driver Anger Scale (DAS; Deffenbacher et al., 1994) and eight questions about their most recent experience of driving anger. A structural equation model found that the intensity of anger experienced was predicted by the negative evaluations of the situation, which was in turn predicted by trait driving anger. However, trait driving anger itself did not predict anger intensity; supporting the hypothesis that evaluations of the driving situation mediate the relationship between trait and state anger. Further, the unique structure of the DAS required to fit the data from the Ukrainian sample, may indicate that the anger inducing situations in Ukraine are different to those of a more developed country. Future research is needed to investigate driving anger in Ukraine in a broader sample and also to confirm the role of the appraisal process in the development of driving anger in both developed and undeveloped countries.     

Driving anger in Malaysia

The present study examined the types of situations that cause Malaysian drivers to become angry. The 33-item version of the driver anger scale (Deffenbacher et al., 1994) was used to investigate driver anger amongst a sample of 339 drivers. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that the fit of the original six-factor model (discourtesy, traffic obstructions, hostile gestures, slow driving, illegal driving and police presence), after removing one item and allowing three error pairs to covary, was satisfactory. Female drivers reported more anger, than males, caused by traffic obstruction and hostile gestures. Age was also negatively related to five (discourtesy, traffic obstructions, hostile gestures, slow driving and police presence) of the six factors and also to the total DAS score. Furthermore, although they were not directly related to crash involvement, several of the six forms of driving anger were significantly related to the crash-related conditions of: near misses, loss of concentration, having lost control of a vehicle and being ticketed. Overall the pattern of findings made in the present research were broadly similar to those from Western countries, indicating that the DAS is a valid measure of driving anger even among non-European based cultures.     

Taking a look behind the wheel: An investigation into the personality predictors of aggressive driving

The present study evaluated a theoretical model of the relationships among six aspects of driver personality (i.e., driving anger and the Big Five personality factors), aggressive driving, and two outcomes of aggressive driving: motor vehicle crashes and moving violations. Data from 308 drivers recruited from two vehicle licensing offices were analyzed using structural equation modeling. As expected, aggressive driving predicted crashes and moving violations. Based on the zero-order correlations, emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were related to aggressive driving in the expected directions; however, the picture changed when the joint effects of all variables were examined via structural equation modeling. A model in which driver personality predicted aggressive driving, which in turn predicted crashes and moving violations was supported. Drivers who were high on driving anger and low on agreeableness reported driving more aggressively. Implications for traffic safety professionals and researchers are discussed.     

Forgiveness and consideration of future consequences in aggressive driving

Most research on aggressive driving has focused on identifying aspects of driver personality which will exacerbate it (e.g., sensation seeking, impulsiveness, driving anger, etc.). The present study was designed to examine two theoretically relevant but previously unexplored personality factors predicted to reduce the risk of aggressive driving: trait forgiveness and consideration of future consequences. The utility of these variables in predicting aggressive driving and driving anger expression was evaluated among 316 college student volunteers. Hierarchical multiple regressions permitted an analysis of the incremental validity of these constructs beyond respondent gender, age, miles driven per week, and driving anger. Both forgiveness and consideration of future consequences contributed to the prediction of aggressive driving and driving anger expression, independent of driving anger. Research on aggressive driving may be enhanced by greater attention to adaptive, potentially risk-reducing traits. Moreover, forgiveness and consideration of future consequences may have implications for accident prevention.     

Predicting risky and angry driving as a function of gender

The present study was designed to examine putative risk factors of driving anger, traffic citations, and traffic-related injuries as a function of gender. Participants included 785 (65% men) drivers identified by the Washington State Department of Licensing. Just over half of participants (55%) were identified as high-risk drivers based on multiple traffic violations, whereas 45% were recruited from a random sample of drivers. Participants completed a mailed survey assessing indicators of risky driving and risk factors including sensation seeking, stressful events, negative affect, tobacco use, and drinking behavior. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to evaluate risky driving outcomes as a function of theoretically prioritized risk factors and to evaluate gender as a moderator. Overall, men reported more traffic citations and injuries, but did not differ from women in reported driving anger. All putative risk factors were associated with one or more indicators of risky driving. Moderation results revealed that the positive relationship between drinking frequency and driving anger was stronger for women. In contrast, typical number of drinks consumed was negatively associated with driving anger, which was also more evident for women. In addition, the positive association between sensation seeking and number of traffic citations was stronger among women.     

Driving anger,emotional and instrumental aggressiveness,and impulsiveness in the prediction of aggressive and transgressive driving

The present study investigates the potential contribution of three predictors of aggressive and transgressive behaviors on the road: driving anger, impulsiveness and aggressiveness. A total of 455 participants (laypersons), of all age and gender, filled self-reported measures evaluating driving anger, impulsiveness, two forms of aggressiveness (instrumental and emotional forms), driving behaviors and aggressive and transgressive behaviors. Main results indicate: (1) a significant gender effect for almost all variables; (2) gender was involved in the prediction of Lapses and Errors; (3) driving anger, impulsiveness and aggressiveness were involved in a complementary manner in the prediction of aggressive and transgressive driving; (4) Aggressiveness and Impeded Progress were the best predictors of violations and aggressive violations. Results support that transgressive driving behaviors are relevant indicators of aggressive driving.     

Hostility,driving anger,and dangerous driving: The emerging role of hemispheric preference

Background

Various studies have implicated psychosocial variables (e.g., hostility) in risk of dangerous driving and traffic accidents. However, whether these variables are related to more basic neurobiological factors, and whether such associations have implications for the modification of psychosocial risk factors in the context of driving, have not been examined in depth. This study examined the relationship between hemispheric preference (HP), hostility and self-reported dangerous driving, and the ability to affect driving anger via hemisphere activating cognitive exercises (HACE).

Methods

In Study 1, 254 Turkish students completed questionnaires of hostility, HP and driving behavior. In Study 2, we conducted a “proof of concept” experimental study, and tested effects of left, right and neutral HACE on driving anger, by exposing N = 650 Turkish students to written scenarios including either logical (left hemisphere), visuo-spatial (right hemisphere) or “mild doses” of both types of contents (control).

Results

In Study 1, left-HP was associated with higher hostility and with more dangerous driving, and hostility mediated the relationship between L-HP and reported driving behavior. In Study 2, only right-HACE led to immediate significant reductions in self-reported driving anger.

Conclusions

Left-HP is related to hostility and to dangerous driving, and it may be possible to partly reduce driving anger by right-HACE. Future studies must replicate these findings with objective measures, more enduring interventions and longer follow-ups.     

Driving anger, sensation seeking, impulsiveness, and boredom proneness in the prediction of unsafe driving

The present study investigated the potential contribution of sensation seeking, impulsiveness, and boredom proneness to driving anger in the prediction of aggressive and risky driving. Two hundred and twenty-four college student participants completed measures of trait driving anger, aggressive and risky driving, driving anger expression, sensation seeking, impulsiveness, and boredom proneness. Findings provided additional support for the utility of the Driving Anger Scale (DAS; Deffenbacher, J.L., Oetting, E.R., Lynch, R.S., Development of a driving anger scale, Psychological Reports, 74, 1994, 83-91.) in predicting unsafe driving. In addition, hierarchical multiple regression analyses demonstrated that sensation seeking, impulsiveness, and boredom proneness provided incremental improvements beyond the DAS in the prediction of crash-related conditions, aggressive driving, risky driving, and driving anger expression. Results support the use of multiple predictors in understanding unsafe driving behavior.     

Aggressive driving: an observational study of driver, vehicle, and situational variables

Over 2000 aggressive driving behaviors were observed over a total of 72 h at six different sites. The behaviors selected for observation were those that are commonly included in "aggressive driving" lists, and they consisted of honking, cutting across one or more lanes in front of other vehicles, and passing on the shoulders. In addition, an exposure sample of 7200 drivers were also observed at the same times and places. Relative risks (RRs) and odds ratios (ODs) were calculated to show the relative likelihood that different drivers under different conditions will commit aggressive behaviors. The rate of aggressive actions observed in this study decreased from the most frequent behavior of cutting across a single lane, through honking, and to the least frequent behaviors of cutting across multiple lanes and passing on the shoulders. Relative to their proportion in the driving population, men were more likely than women to commit aggressive actions, and the differences increased as the severity of the action increased. Drivers who were 45 years old or older were less likely to drive aggressively than younger ones. The presence of passengers was associated with a slight but consistent reduction in aggressive driving of all types; especially honking at other drivers. There was a strong linear association between congestion and the frequency of aggressive behaviors, but it was due to the number of drivers on the road. However, when the value of time was high (as in rush hours), the likelihood of aggressive driving--after adjusting for the number of drivers on the road--was higher than when the value of time was low (during the non-rush weekday or weekend hours). The results have implications for driver behavior modifications and for environmental design.     

Asymmetric relationship between driving and safety skills

We hypothesized that the combination of self reported high ratings of driving skills and low ratings of safety skills creates a serious risk for road accident involvement. This study was aimed at investigating the asymmetric interplay between driving and safety skills among Turkish drivers (N=785) using the Driving Skills Inventory [Lajunen, T., Summala, H., 1995. Driver experience, personality, and skill and safety motive dimensions in drivers' self-assessments. Pers. Indiv. Differ. 19, 307-318]. The assumed asymmetric interactions were tested on a number of outcome variables representing risky driving using moderated regression analyses. The results revealed that driving skills moderated the effects of safety skills on six out of the eight outcome variables including the number of accidents, tickets, overtaking tendencies, speed on motorways, and aggressive driving style. Results suggested that high levels of safety skills buffer the negative effect of overconfidence resulting from exaggerated ratings of self-reported driving skills.     

Differentiating risky and aggressive driving: Further support of the internal validity of the Dula Dangerous Driving Index

The Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI) is a cross-cultural validated instrument that measures simultaneously various manifestations of behaviours, cognitions, and affects associated with dangerous driving. The aims of the study were to translate the DDDI into French and then to verify the validity and reliability of the French version of the scale by means of observed behaviours on a driving simulator, and of self-reported measures of driving behaviours, personality and sociodemographic characteristics. A first sample of 395 drivers completed self-reported questionnaires and a second sample of 75 male drivers also completed tasks on a driving simulator. A confirmatory factorial analysis supported the internal validity of the scale. Findings also show that the French version of the DDDI yields good internal consistency, concomitant and convergent validity for each subscale (risky driving, negative cognitive/emotional driving and aggressive driving) and total score. The scale was useful to differentiate sociodemographic and psychological profiles associated with each subscale.     

The multidimensional driving style inventory a decade later: Review of the literature and re-evaluation of the scale

The Multidimensional Driving Style Inventory (MDSI; Taubman - Ben-Ari, Mikulincer, & Gillath, 2004a), a self-report questionnaire assessing four broad driving styles, has been in use for the last ten years. During that time, numerous studies have explored the associations between the MDSI factors and sociodemographic and driving-related variables. The current paper employs two large data sets to summarize the accumulated knowledge, examining MDSI factors in samples of young drivers aged 17–21 (Study 1, n = 1436) and older drivers aged 22–84 (Study 2, n = 3409). Findings indicate that driving-related indicators are coherently and systematically related to the four driving styles in the expected directions, revalidating the structure of the MDSI. The results also help clarify the relationships between the driving styles and variables such as gender, ethnicity, car ownership, age, and experience, and suggest that driving styles are largely unaffected by sociodemographic characteristics, except for gender and ethnicity, and appear to represent a relatively stable and universal trait. The two studies highlight the validity and reliability of the MDSI, attesting to its practical value as a tool for purposes of research, evaluation, and intervention.     

Validation of the Driver’s Angry Thoughts Questionnaire (DATQ) in a Chinese sample

The relationship between driving anger and negative driving outcomes, such as dangerous driving behaviors and traffic violations, has been the topic of several studies, but few studies have explored drivers’ angry thoughts when they encounter anger-provoking situations and the potential consequences of such thoughts. The purpose of this study was to investigate drivers’ angry thoughts behind the wheel and their relationship with dangerous driving behaviors. A total of 303 Chinese drivers completed the Chinese version of the Driver’s Angry Thoughts Questionnaire (DATQ), the Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI) and the Driving Anger Scale (DAS). A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the Chinese DATQ yielded a five-factor solution with 20 items that showed the best goodness of fit for the data. The brief DATQ also showed good reliability and validity. Three forms of aggressive thinking were positively correlated with dangerous driving behaviors, and coping self-instruction was negatively correlated with dangerous driving behaviors and traffic violations. More importantly, aggressive thinking mediated the effect of driving anger on dangerous driving behaviors, indicating the importance of thoughts behind the wheel. These results provide evidence supporting the development of strategies to reduce and prevent aggressive driving and accidents.     

Individual difference factors in risky driving: the roles of anger/hostility, conscientiousness, and sensation-seeking

Motor vehicle crashes claim the lives of more Americans than any other cause of injury. One factor long recognized as relevant to predicting dangerous driver behavior is the driver's personality. This study examines the independent and combined roles of three personality traits--sensation-seeking, conscientiousness, and anger/hostility--in predicting risky driving behavior. Seventy-three participants completed personality and driving history questionnaires, and also engaged in a virtual environment (VE) task designed to assess risk-taking driving behavior. Each facet of personality was correlated to risky driving behavior in independent univariate analyses. In multivariate analyses, sensation-seeking emerged as the best predictor of self-reported driving violations. Anger/hostility and the interactive effect of anger/hostility by sensation-seeking also emerged in a multivariate analysis predicting one measure of self-reported driving violations. No personality trait predicted risky driving in the VE in multivariate analyses. Results are discussed with respect to previous work in the field, challenges involved in measuring the constructs of interest, and implications to prevention.     

Development and evaluation of a Driving Observation Schedule (DOS) to study everyday driving performance of older drivers

This paper describes the development and evaluation of an on-road procedure, the Driving Observation Schedule (DOS), for monitoring individual driving behavior. DOS was developed for use in the Candrive/Ozcandrive five-year prospective study of older drivers. Key features included observations in drivers’ own vehicles, in familiar environments chosen by the driver, with start/end points at their own homes. Participants were 33 drivers aged 75+ years, who drove their selected route with observations recorded during intersection negotiation, lane-changing, merging, low speed maneuvers and maneuver-free driving. Driving behaviors were scored by a specialist occupational therapy driving assessor and another trained observer. Drivers also completed a post-drive survey about the acceptability of DOS. Vehicle position, speed, distance and specific roadways traveled were recorded by an in-vehicle device installed in the participant's vehicle; this device was also used to monitor participants’ driving over several months, allowing comparison of DOS trips with their everyday driving. Inter-rater reliability and DOS feasibility, acceptability and ecological validity are reported here. On average, drivers completed the DOS trip in 30.48 min (SD = 7.99). Inter-rater reliability measures indicated strong agreement between the trained and the expert observers: intra-class correlations (ICC) = 0.905, CI 95% 0.747–0.965, p < 0.0001; Pearson product correlation, r (18) = .83, p < 0.05. Standard error of the measurement (SEM), method error (ME) and coefficient of variation (CV) measures were consistently small (3.0, 2.9 & 3.3%, respectively). Most participants reported being ‘completely at ease’ (82%) with the driving task and ‘highly familiar with the route’ (97%). Vehicle data showed that DOS trips were similar to participants’ everyday driving trips in roads used, roadway speed limits, drivers’ average speed and speed limit compliance. In summary, preliminary findings suggest that DOS can be scored reliably, is of feasible duration, is acceptable to drivers and representative of everyday driving. Pending further research with a larger sample and other observers, DOS holds promise as a means of quantifying and monitoring changes in older drivers’ performance in environments typical of their everyday driving.     

Self-reported driving behaviors as a function of trait anxiety

This study examined self-reported driving behaviors in 120 (Israeli) male drivers as a function of trait anxiety (TA). TA was assessed through the TA scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. For the analysis of driving behaviors, the present study used the Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) and adopted previous distinctions between four classes of behaviors within the DBQ: errors, lapses, ordinary violations and aggressive violations. Regression analyses revealed that level of TA had a significant direct positive effect on all dependent variables, suggesting riskier driving behaviors among high-anxious individuals. Significant logarithmic effects for all measures indicate that these aberrant driving behaviors increase more at increasing LTA-, than at increasing HTA-values. Consistent with the general adverse effects of anxiety on performance effectiveness, the present findings as well, are interpreted in the framework of theories which suggest that worries occupy the capacities of working memory, at the expense of the task to be performed. The positive relation between aggressive violations and TA is sought to reflect low levels of emotional adjustment among high-anxious individuals.