Pedestrian crash trends and potential countermeasures from around the world

As automobile transportation continues to increase around the world, bicyclists, pedestrians, and motorcyclists, also known as vulnerable road users (VRUs), will become more susceptible to traffic crashes, especially in countries where traffic laws are poorly enforced. Many countries, however, are employing innovative strategies to ensure that road users can more safely navigate the urban landscape. While bicyclists and motorcyclists are important road users, this paper will focus on pedestrian crash problems and solutions. Pedestrians are most at risk in urban areas due in part to the large amount of pedestrian and vehicle activity in urban areas. With this in mind, designing safe, accessible, and comprehensive facilities for pedestrians is vital to reducing pedestrian crashes. This paper will provide some insight into the magnitude of the pedestrian crash problem around the world, and will offer some lessons learned from several countries, particularly in Europe and the U.S., for improving pedestrian safety. Beginning with pedestrian safety statistics at the global, regional, and national levels, this paper will address potential countermeasures and strategies for improving pedestrian safety from an international perspective.     

Accidents in the U.S. and Europe: 1970–1980

This study compares certain demographic and accident characteristics among Western European countries and between Western Europe and the United States. The specific objectives of the study were to: (1) Identify various changes in fatalities and fatality rates experienced by each of eleven Western European Countries, by these countries as a whole, and by the United States from 1970 through 1980, with special attention given to the energy crisis and its aftermath from 1974 through 1980. (2) Determine whether there were statistically significant changes during the 1970–1980 time period in the traffic accident characteristics studied. The findings of this study are as follows: (1) During the decade studied. Western Europe as a whole experienced a fatality rate reduction per 10⁹ vehicle-kilometers traveled of 45.8% while the U.S. experienced a 29.1% reduction during this same period. (2) In Western Europe the age groups 0–14, 25–64 and over 64 and its road user groups pedestrians, bicyclists and motorcyclists and moped riders showed statistically significant improvements in the characteristics studied. The only U.S. group to experience a significant reduction in fatalities during this period was the age group 0–14; however the 1980 fatality rate per 10⁹ vehicle-kilometers of travel of 21.0 for the U.S., versus 34.8 for Western Europe, indicates that driving in the U.S. is still much safer.     

Temporal distribution of motorcyclist injuries and risk of fatalities in relation to age, helmet use, and riding while intoxicated in Khon Kaen, Thailand

This study investigated the temporal distribution of risky behaviors among injured motorcyclists, that is, riding unhelmeted or while intoxicated, and showed how they are associated with risk of fatal injuries. Data of motorcyclists injured in Khon Kaen municipality in northeastern Thailand and transferred to Khon Kaen Regional Hospital were obtained from the trauma registry system of the hospital. Case fatalities were compared by time of day, age group, helmet use, and alcohol intoxication. Unhelmeted riding peaked late in the evening and riding while intoxicated peaked around midnight. Both were associated with increased fatality risk after stratification by time of day; the odds ratios were 3.49 (95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.48-9.36) and 3.01 (CI = 1.71-5.19), respectively. Nighttime injuries were not significantly associated with increased fatality risk after stratification by helmet use or alcohol intoxication. Unhelmeted driving was prevalent and associated with higher fatality risk among younger drivers, whereas intoxicated driving was less prevalent among teens but associated with increased risk among those aged 20-39 years. This study shows that riding unhelmeted or while intoxicated can explain the increased fatality risk at night, suggesting that safety education or enforcements should be targeted at specific age groups and appropriate times.     

Effect of the helmet act for motorcyclists in Thailand

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the effect of the helmet act for motorcyclists on increasing helmet use and reducing motorcycle-related deaths and severe injuries in Thailand. METHODS: Data were derived from a trauma registry at the Khon Kaen Regional Hospital in the northeast Thailand. Helmet use and outcome in motorcycle crashes were compared 2 years before (1994-1995) and after (1996-1997) enforcement of the helmet act. During the study period, there were 12002 injured motorcyclists including 129 death cases in the municipality of Khon Kaen Province who were brought to the regional hospital. RESULTS: After enforcement of the helmet act, helmet-wearers increased five-fold while head injuries decreased by 41.4% and deaths by 20.8%. Those who had head or neck injuries or died were less likely wearing a helmet. Compliance of helmet use was lower at night. Fatality of injured motorcyclists did not significantly decrease in the post-act period and among helmet-wearers. CONCLUSION: Enforcement of the helmet act increased helmet-wearers among motorcyclists but helmet use did not significantly reduce deaths among injured motorcyclists. Motorcyclists should be instructed to properly and consistently wear a helmet for their safety.     

Safety riding program and motorcycle-related injuries in Thailand

A retrospective cohort study was conducted in Thailand from 2007 to 2009 to evaluate the efficacy of a safety riding program in preventing motorcycle-related injuries. A training group of motorcyclists were certified by the Asia-Pacific Honda Safety Riding Program in either 30-h instruction (teaching skills, riding demonstration) or 15-h license (knowledge, skills, and hazard perception) courses. The control group consisted of untrained motorcyclists matched on an approximately 1:1 ratio with the training group by region and date of licensure. In total, there were 3250 subjects in the training group and 2963 in the control group. Demographic data and factors associated with motorcycle-related injuries were collected. Motorcycle-related injuries were identified using the Road Injuries Victims Protection for injuries claims and inpatient diagnosis-related group datasets from the National Health Security Office. The capture–recapture technique was used to estimate the prevalence of injuries. Multivariate analysis was used to identify factors related to motorcycle-related injuries. The prevalence of motorcycle-related injuries was estimated to be 586 out of 6213 riders (9.4%) with a 95% confidence interval (CI): 460–790. The license course and the instruction course were significantly associated with a 30% and 29% reduction of motorcycle-related injuries, respectively (relative risk 0.70, 95% CI: 0.53–0.92 and 0.71, 95% CI: 0.42–1.18, respectively). Other factors associated with the injuries were male gender and young age. Safety riding training was effective in reducing injuries. These training programs differ from those in other developed countries but display comparable effects. Hazard perception skills might be a key for success. This strategy should be expanded to a national scale.     

Traffic accident statistics and risk perceptions in Japan and the United States

Several recent studies have concluded that Japan and the US have different risk cultures. This study examines the actual risk environments faced by citizens in the two countries, in the domain of traffic safety, as a possible source of differences in risk perceptions. The study contrasts traffic-accident risks from several points of view (e.g. car drivers, motorcyclists, bicyclists and pedestrians) and risk statistics (e.g. death rates, relative fatality risks, and accident lethality). Results clarify the traffic risks in the two countries and confirm their potential for explaining cross-national differences in risk perceptions.     

Mobile phone use among motorcyclists and electric bike riders: A case study of Hanoi,Vietnam

Motorcyclist injuries and fatalities are a major concern of many developing countries. In Vietnam, motorcycles are involved in more than 70% of all road traffic crashes. This paper aims to explore the prevalence and factors associated with mobile phone use among motorcyclists and electric bike riders, using a case study of Hanoi, Vietnam. A cross-sectional observation survey was undertaken at 12 sites, in which each site was surveyed during a two-hour peak period from 16:30 to 18:30 for two weekdays and one weekend day. A total of 26,360 riders were observed, consisting of 24,759 motorcyclists and 1601 electric bike riders. The overall prevalence of mobile phone use while riding was 8.4% (95% CI: 8.06–8.74%) with calling having higher prevalence than screen operation: 4.64% (95% CI: 4.39–4.90%) vs. 3.76% (95% CI: 3.52–3.99%) respectively. Moreover, the prevalence of mobile phone use was higher among motorcyclists than electric bike riders: 8.66% (95%CI: 8.30–9.01%) vs. 4.43% (95% CI: 3.40–5.47%) respectively. Logistic regression analyses revealed that mobile phone use while riding was associated with vehicle type, age, gender, riding alone, weather, day of week, proximity to city centre, number of lanes, separate car lanes, red traffic light duration, and police presence. Combining greater enforcement of existing legislations with extensive education and publicity programs is recommended to reduce potential deaths and injuries related to the use of mobile phones while riding.     

A cross-sectional observational study of helmet use among motorcyclists in Wa,Ghana

Motorcyclists’ injuries and fatalities are a major public health concern in many developing countries including Ghana. This study therefore aimed to investigate the prevalence of helmet use among motorcyclists in Wa, Ghana. The method used involved a cross-sectional roadside observation at 12 randomly selected sites within and outside the CBD of Wa. A total of 14,467 motorcyclists made up of 11,360 riders and 3107 pillion riders were observed during the study period. Most observed riders (86.5%) and pillion riders (61.7%) were males. The overall prevalence of helmet use among the observed motorcyclists was 36.9% (95% CI: 36.1–37.7). Helmet use for riders was 45.8% (95% CI: 44.8–46.7) whilst that for pillion riders was 3.7% (95 CI: 3.0–4.4). Based on logistic regression analysis, higher helmet wearing rates were found to be significantly associated with female gender, weekdays, morning periods and at locations within the CBD. Riders at locations outside the CBD were about 7 times less likely to wear a helmet than riders within the CBD (48.9% compared to 42.3%; χ²₍₁₎ = 49.526; p < 0.001). The study concluded that despite the existence of a national helmet legislation that mandates the use of helmets by both riders and pillion riders on all roads in Ghana, helmet use is generally low in Wa. This suggests that all stakeholders in road safety should jointly intensify education on helmet use and pursue rigorous enforcement on all road types especially at locations outside the CBD to improve helmet use in Wa.     

Examination of factors determining fault in two-vehicle motorcycle crashes

Motorcycle crashes frequently involve a combination of high-risk behaviors by the motorcyclist or the other crash-involved driver. Such behaviors may include riding or driving without appropriate licensure or while under the influence of alcohol, as well as deciding not to use a safety device such as a helmet or safety belt. Given that these factors frequently occur in combination with one another, it is difficult to untangle the specific effects of individual factors leading up to the crash outcome. This study assesses how various rider-, driver-, and other crash-specific factors contribute to at-fault status in two-vehicle motorcycle crashes, as well as how these same factors affect the propensity for other high-risk behaviors. Furthermore, the interrelationships among fault status and these other behaviors are also examined using a multivariate probit model. This model is developed using police-reported crash data for the years 2006–2010 from the State of Ohio. The results show that younger motorcyclists are more likely to be at-fault in the event of a collision, as are riders who are under the influence of alcohol, riding without insurance, or not wearing a helmet. Similarly, motorcyclists were less likely to be at-fault when the other driver was of younger age or was driving under the influence of alcohol, without insurance, or not wearing their safety belt. Crash-involved parties who engaged in one high-risk behavior were more likely to engage in other such behaviors, as well, and this finding was consistent for both motorcyclists and drivers. The results of this study suggest that educational and enforcement strategies aimed at addressing any one of these behaviors are likely to have tangential impacts on the other behaviors, as well.     

Impairment of simulated motorcycle riding performance under low dose alcohol

Crash statistics that include the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of vehicle operators reveal that crash involved motorcyclists are over represented at low BACs (e.g., ≤0.05%). This riding simulator study compared riding performance and hazard response under three low dose alcohol conditions (sober, 0.02% BAC, 0.05% BAC). Forty participants (20 novice, 20 experienced) completed simulated rides in urban and rural scenarios while responding to a safety-critical peripheral detection task (PDT). Results showed a significant increase in the standard deviation of lateral position in the urban scenario and PDT reaction time in the rural scenario under 0.05% BAC compared with zero alcohol. Participants were most likely to collide with an unexpected pedestrian in the urban scenario at 0.02% BAC, with novice participants at a greater relative risk than experienced riders. Novices chose to ride faster than experienced participants in the rural scenario regardless of BAC. Not all results were significant, emphasising the complex situation of the effects of low dose BAC on riding performance, which needs further research. The results of this simulator study provide some support for a legal BAC for motorcyclists below 0.05%.     

Motorcycle helmet type and the risk of head injury and neck injury during motorcycle collisions in California

The use of novelty motorcycle helmets is often prompted by beliefs that wearing a standard helmet can contribute to neck injury during traffic collisions. The goal of this analysis was to examine the association between helmet type and neck injury risk and the association between helmet type and head injury. Data were collected during the investigation of motorcycle collisions of any injury severity by the California Highway Patrol (CHP) and 83 local law enforcement agencies in California between June 2012 and July 2013. We estimated head injury and neck injury risk ratios from data on 7051 collision-involved motorcyclists using log-binomial regression. Helmet type was strongly associated with head injury occurrence but was not associated with the occurrence of neck injury. Rider age, rider alcohol use, and motorcycle speed were strong, positive predictors of both head and neck injury. Interventions to improve motorcycle helmet choice and to counteract misplaced concerns surrounding neck injury risk are likely to lead to reductions in head injury, brain injury, and death.     

Public attitudes towards motorcyclists’ safety: A qualitative study from the United Kingdom

The aim of the reported research was to examine the perceptions of road user safety amongst different road users and examine the link between attitudes, empathy and skill in motorcycle safety behaviour. Motorcyclists were perceived by the study participants, members of the public at four different locations at the UK (including motorcyclists and non-motorcyclists), as a group be at a high risk of accidents on the road. This was due to perceived behavioural characteristics of motorcyclists – who were viewed as ‘thrill seekers’ – as well as observed behaviours on the road. This, coupled with the physical vulnerability and excessive speeds, meant that motorbike driving was considered by the study participants as the least safe form of road use. There was broad agreement that motorcycling was dangerous as a whole, but not all motorcyclists were necessarily risky riders. The issue of ‘competitive space’ emerged between car drivers and motorcyclists in particular and it was suggested that there was a lack of mutual awareness and considerations between the two groups. Generally, greatest empathy comes from drivers who are motorcyclists themselves. Engineering, education, enforcement interventions were investigated. These were aimed at two main areas: normalising safer driving behaviours for motorcyclists and increasing awareness of bikes for motorists—particularly in relation to reducing speed limits at urban junctions. Finally, the idea of risk mapping and reduced speed limits on rural roads was seen as potentially effective—particularly as certain motorcyclists highlighted that they changed their riding behaviours by increasing speed and taking greater risks on these roads.     

Safe system approach to reducing serious injury risk in motorcyclist collisions with fixed hazards

Collisions with fixed objects in the roadway environment account for a substantial proportion of motorcyclist fatalities. Many studies have identified individual roadway environment and/or motorcyclist characteristics that are associated with the severity of the injury outcome, including the presence of roadside barriers, helmet use, alcohol use and speeding. However, no studies have reported the cumulative benefit of such characteristics on motorcycling safety. The safe system approach recognises that the system must work as a whole to reduce the net injury risk to road users to an acceptable level, including the four system cornerstone areas of roadways, speeds, vehicles and people. The aim of the present paper is to consider these cornerstone areas concomitantly, and quantitatively assess the serious injury risk of motorcyclists in fixed object collisions using this holistic approach. A total of 1006 Australian and 15,727 (weighted) United States motorcyclist-fixed object collisions were collected retrospectively, and the serious injury risks associated with roadside barriers, helmet use, alcohol use and speeding were assessed both individually and concomitantly. The results indicate that if safety efforts are made in each of the safe system cornerstone areas, the combined effect is to substantially reduce the serious injury risk of fixed hazards to motorcyclists. The holistic approach is shown to reduce the serious injury risk considerably more than each of the safety efforts considered individually. These results promote the use of a safe system approach to motorcycling safety.     

The relationship between the travelling speed and motorcycle styles in urban settings: A case study in Belgrade

This report examines the difference in the distribution of the speeds of different motorcycle styles and the difference in the distribution of speeds of particular motorcycle styles and cars. The relationship between the speed of motorcycles that possess and those that do not possess vehicle registration plates was also explored. The speed was measured at six different locations on main roads in the city of Belgrade, Serbia. The study confirmed that, on average, motorcyclists drive faster than drivers of cars, but extreme speeding is recorded 2.3 times more often by motorcyclists than by car drivers. In this research, the styles of motorcycles were divided into three different groups according to their average speeds. The first group consists of sport motorcycles, which were faster than the other styles. The second group consists of scooter motorcycles, which were slower. The third group consists of conventional, touring, enduro, and chopper motorcycles with speeds that were statistically not significantly different. According to the differences of the mean speed of motorcyclists who use and do not use vehicle registration plates, the use of the registration plates can be considered a significant indicator of traffic safety. By classifying motorcycles in the three different groups, the issue of “generalizing” motorcyclists as a unique group is avoided and can be taken into consideration for future studies of motorcyclist safety.     

Validation of the motorcycle operator skill test

This study's aim was to determine what demographic and experiential factors are related to scores on the Motorcycle Operator Skill Test. It was expected that the greater the riding experience and training, the higher would be the skill scores. Applicants for a motorcycle operator's licence were administered a questionnaire and the Skill Test prior to taking the licensing test. The questionnaire and skill data for those applicants passing the licensing test were analyzed and it was found that skill was greater among the more experienced riders (i.e. miles ridden motorcycle) but unexpectedly it was lower among training course graduates. Also, males performed better than females and younger motorcyclists performed better than older motorcyclists. Further analyses revealed that course graduates had less skill than untrained riders even when experience differences were controlled. The implications of the present data for the effectiveness of motorcycle training courses are discussed.     

Regional Cultural Differences Within European Countries: Evidence from Multi-Country Surveys

The purpose of this study is to investigate the patterns of regional cultural differences within European countries. This study extends our previous work (Kaasa et al. 2013) that used data from the European Social Survey (ESS), by using more recent data and combining the ESS and the European Values Study (EVS) as data sources. We aim to study how much attention should be paid to within-country differences and how they differ across countries. The indicators of cultural dimensions were created using confirmatory factor analysis based on the initial indicators selected relying on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. The extent and character of within-country cultural differences were examined. Our results reveal a wide diversity of regional cultural variability among the observed countries. We identified countries where within-country cultural variability is larger (Spain, Portugal, France) and smaller (Finland, Sweden, Norway) than cross-national variability. Also, in many countries a more detailed regional division (more and smaller regions) brought out larger differences, although this cannot be taken as a rule. Patterns along regions differ across cultural dimensions, making grouping regions difficult. Studying regional cultural differences within countries is important. The extent of the optimal depth of regional division applied depends on the particular country, its regional cultural variability, and the needs and aims of the researcher.     

Barriers to, and factors associated, with observed motorcycle helmet use in Vietnam

This study investigated barriers to, and factors associated with, observed motorcycle helmet use among motorcyclists in Hai Duong Province, Vietnam. The findings highlighted an array of factors associated with observed helmet use namely, support for universal helmet legislation and a positive attitude towards what might be perceived as negative attributes of helmet use such as inconvenience and discomfort in hot weather. As well, older age (greater than 25 years in age), riding on a compulsory road, being a driver, trips of greater than 10 km, higher levels of education (having a university degree and higher) were found to be key determinants of helmet use. Despite over 95% of motorcyclists disagreeing with the statement that wearing a helmet does not reduce the severity of head injury in a crash, most motorcyclists believed that helmets did not need to be worn for a short trip. Overall, only 23% of motorcyclists were observed wearing a helmet. The authors conclude that efforts to increase helmet use need to focus on the necessity for universal helmet legislation in association with identifying solutions to reduce the negative attitudes towards helmet use.     

A behavioral comparison between motorcyclists and a matched group of non-motorcycling car drivers: factors influencing accident risk

Motorcyclists and a matched group of non-motorcycling car drivers were assessed on behavioral measures known to relate to accident involvement. Using a range of laboratory measures, we found that motorcyclists chose faster speeds than the car drivers, overtook more, and pulled into smaller gaps in traffic, though they did not travel any closer to the vehicle in front. The speed and following distance findings were replicated by two further studies involving unobtrusive roadside observation. We suggest that the increased risk-taking behavior of motorcyclists was only likely to account for a small proportion of the difference in accident risk between motorcyclists and car drivers. A second group of motorcyclists was asked to complete the simulator tests as if driving a car. They did not differ from the non-motorcycling car drivers on the risk-taking measures but were better at hazard perception. There were also no differences for sensation seeking, mild social deviance, and attitudes to riding/driving, indicating that the risk-taking tendencies of motorcyclists did not transfer beyond motorcycling, while their hazard perception skill did.     

Applying the motorcyclist's perspective to improve car drivers' attitudes towards motorcyclists

This study sought to provide a first crucial step in the direction of developing an intervention program aimed at improving safe attitudes and skills among car drivers towards motorcycles. We intended to improve drivers’ attitudes towards motorcyclists by exposing them to demands that motorcyclists face on the road. Car drivers were exposed to hazard perception clips taken from a motorcyclist's perspective, and interactive hazards in a motorcycle simulator. Car hazard perception clips and a car simulator were used as control conditions. A questionnaire assessed participant knowledge and attitudes towards motorcyclists before and after the intervention. After the intervention participants had more empathic- and fewer negative-attitudes, as well as safer attitudes towards motorcyclists. Self-reported attitude-change suggested that the use of motorcycle hazard perception clips was more effective than the simulator, and the intervention was most effective for those car drivers who reported the most negative attitudes prior viewing the clips or riding the simulator. Providing car drivers with a perspective of the motorcyclist may prove to be a useful tool for promoting safer attitudes towards motorcyclists.