Consideration of future safety consequences: A new predictor of employee safety

Background

Compliance with safety behaviors is often associated with longer term benefits, but may require some short-term sacrifices. This study examines the extent to which consideration of future safety consequences (CFSC) predicts employee safety outcomes.

Methods

Two field studies were conducted to evaluate the reliability and validity of the newly developed Consideration of Future Safety Consequences (CFSC) scale. Surveys containing the CFSC scale and other measures of safety attitudes, behaviors, and outcomes were administered during working hours to a sample of 128 pulp and paper mill employees; after revising the CFSC scale based on these initial results, follow-up survey data were collected in a second sample of 212 copper miners.

Results

In Study I, CFSC was predictive of employee safety knowledge and motivation, compliance, safety citizenship behaviors, accident reporting attitudes and behaviors, and workplace injuries – even after accounting for conscientiousness and demographic variables. Moreover, the effects of CFSC on the variables generally appear to be direct, as opposed to mediated by safety knowledge or motivation. These findings were largely replicated in Study II.

Conclusions

CFSC appears to be an important personality construct that may predict those individuals who are more likely to comply with safety rules and have more positive safety outcomes. Future research should examine the longitudinal stability of CFSC to determine the extent to which this construct is a stable trait, rather than a safety attitude amenable to change over time or following an intervention.     

Supervisor vs. employee safety perceptions and association with future injury in US limited-service restaurant workers

Objectives

Many studies have found management commitment to safety to be an important construct of safety climate. This study examined the association between supervisor and employee (shared and individual) perceptions of management commitment to safety and the rate of future injuries in limited-service restaurant workers.

Methods

A total of 453 participants (34 supervisors/managers and 419 employees) from 34 limited-service restaurants participated in a prospective cohort study. Employees’ and managers’ perceptions of management commitment to safety and demographic variables were collected at the baseline. The survey questions were made available in three languages: English, Spanish, and Portuguese. For the following 12 weeks, participants reported their injury experience and weekly work hours. A multivariate negative binomial generalized estimating equation model with compound symmetry covariance structure was used to assess the association between the rate of self-reported injuries and measures of safety perceptions.

Results

There were no significant relationships between supervisor and either individual or shared employee perceptions of management commitment to safety. Only individual employee perceptions were significantly associated with future employee injury experience but not supervisor safety perceptions or shared employee perceptions.

Conclusion

Individual employee perception of management commitment to safety is a significant predictor for future injuries in restaurant environments. A study focusing on employee perceptions would be more predictive of injury outcomes than supervisor/manager perceptions.     

Effectiveness and acceptance of the intelligent speeding prediction system (ISPS)

Background

The intelligent speeding prediction system (ISPS) is an in-vehicle speed assistance system developed to provide quantitative predictions of speeding. Although the ISPS's prediction of speeding has been validated, whether the ISPS can regulate a driver's speed behavior or whether a driver accepts the ISPS needs further investigation. Additionally, compared to the existing intelligent speed adaptation (ISA) system, whether the ISPS performs better in terms of reducing excessive speeds and improving driving safety needs more direct evidence.

Objectives

An experiment was conducted to assess and compare the effectiveness and acceptance of the ISPS and the ISA.

Method

We conducted a driving simulator study with 40 participants. System type served as a between-subjects variable with four levels: no speed assistance system, pre-warning system developed based on the ISPS, post-warning system ISA, and combined pre-warning and ISA system. Speeding criterion served as a within-subjects variable with two levels: lower (posted speed limit plus 1 mph) and higher (posted speed limit plus 5 mph) speed threshold. Several aspects of the participants’ driving speed, speeding measures, lead vehicle response, and subjective measures were collected.

Results

Both pre-warning and combined systems led to greater minimum time-to-collision. The combined system resulted in slower driving speed, fewer speeding exceedances, shorter speeding duration, and smaller speeding magnitude.

Conclusions

The results indicate that both pre-warning and combined systems have the potential to improve driving safety and performance.     

Profitability and occupational injuries in U.S. underground coal mines

Background

Coal plays a crucial role in the U.S. economy yet underground coal mining continues to be one of the most dangerous occupations in the country. In addition, there are large variations in both profitability and the incidence of occupational injuries across mines.

Objective

The objective of this study was to examine the association between profitability and the incidence rate of occupational injuries in U.S. underground coal mines between 1992 and 2008.

Data and method

We used mine-specific data on annual hours worked, geographic location, and the number of occupational injuries suffered annually from the employment and accident/injury databases of the Mine Safety and Health Administration, and mine-specific data on annual revenue from coal sales, mine age, workforce union status, and mining method from the U.S. Energy Information Administration. A total of 5669 mine-year observations (number of mines × number of years) were included in our analysis. We used a negative binomial random effects model that was appropriate for analyzing panel (combined time-series and cross-sectional) injury data that were non-negative and discrete. The dependent variable, occupational injury, was measured in three different and non-mutually exclusive ways: all reported fatal and nonfatal injuries, reported nonfatal injuries with lost workdays, and the ‘most serious’ (i.e. sum of fatal and serious nonfatal) injuries reported. The total number of hours worked in each mine and year examined was used as an exposure variable. Profitability, the main explanatory variable, was approximated by revenue per hour worked. Our model included mine age, workforce union status, mining method, and geographic location as additional control variables.

Results

After controlling for other variables, a 10% increase in real total revenue per hour worked was associated with 0.9%, 1.1%, and 1.6% decrease, respectively, in the incidence rates of all reported injuries, reported injuries with lost workdays, and the most serious injuries reported.

Conclusion

We found an inverse relationship between profitability and each of the three indicators of occupational injuries we used. These results might be partially due to factors that affect both profitability and safety, such as management or engineering practices, and partially due to lower investments in safety by less profitable mines, which could imply that some financially stressed mines might be so focused on survival that they forgo investing in safety.     

Evaluation of e-bike accidents in Switzerland

Background

The acceptance and usage of electric bicycles has rapidly increased in Switzerland in the last years. Hence this topic has been addressed by policy makers with the aim to facilitate new transport modes and, moreover, to improve their safety.

Methods

Police-recorded accidents of the years 2011 and 2012 involving a total of 504 e-bikers and 871 bicyclists were analysed. National figures were compared with those of a rural and an urban environment.

Results

Most e-bikers who were involved in accidents were 40–65 years old. It was found that most e-bikers sustained single accidents and that helmet usage was higher in the investigated rural environment than in the investigated urban area. The evaluation of the injury severity of e-bikers, particularly compared to bicyclists, lead to diverging results.

Conclusions

The findings presented in this study are intended to serve as a benchmark since basic information on characteristics of e-bike accidents is provided. With respect to differences between the injury severity of e-bikers and bicyclists to-date no clear statement can be drawn. It is suggested to regularly evaluate e-bike accidents to show trends and/or identify changes.     

Increased traffic accident rates associated with shale gas drilling in Pennsylvania

Objectives

We examined the association between shale gas drilling and motor vehicle accident rates in Pennsylvania.

Methods

Using publicly available data on all reported vehicle crashes in Pennsylvania, we compared accident rates in counties with and without shale gas drilling, in periods with and without intermittent drilling (using data from 2005 to 2012). Counties with drilling were matched to non-drilling counties with similar population and traffic in the pre-drilling period.

Results

Heavily drilled counties in the north experienced 15–23% higher vehicle crash rates in 2010–2012 and 61–65% higher heavy truck crash rates in 2011–2012 than control counties. We estimated 5–23% increases in crash rates when comparing months with drilling and months without, but did not find significant effects on fatalities and major injury crashes. Heavily drilled counties in the southwest showed 45–47% higher rates of fatal and major injury crashes in 2012 than control counties, but monthly comparisons of drilling activity showed no significant differences associated with drilling.

Conclusions

Vehicle accidents have measurably increased in conjunction with shale gas drilling.     

An example of the usefulness of joinpoint trend analysis for assessing changes in traffic safety policies

Aim

To show the usefulness of joinpoint trend analysis for assessing changes in traffic safety policies.

Methods

Trends in driver death rates from traffic injury stratified by alcohol involvement in Spain during 2001–2011 were characterized with joinpoint regression to observe how changes in these rates match in time with the implementation of traffic regulations and interventions.

Results

Both alcohol-related (blood alcohol concentration >0.3 g/l) and non-alcohol-related rates decreased similarly (10–11% annually) during 2001–2011, although the former showed an earlier (2003 joinpoint) acceleration of the downward trend than the latter (2006 joinpoint); both joinpoints matched in time with relevant road safety interventions.

Conclusions

These results, which are consistent with results from previous analytical studies, show that joinpoint trend analysis, although not valid for causal inference, is useful for assessing changes in traffic safety policies. This methodology can be easily extended to other risk factors, such as excessive speeding or not wearing a seat belt.     

Grandparents and child passenger safety

Purpose

This study compares child passenger safety (CPS) practices of grandparents versus parents and determines grandparents’ opinions on car safety seats (CSS), barriers to use, and ways to transport grandchildren safely.

Methods

Observational surveys were conducted on a convenience sample of drivers transporting children younger than sixteen years at 25 locations by certified child passenger safety technicians observing children in motor vehicles and recorded use of child passenger restraints. The drivers were surveyed on their knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and practices regarding CPS. Data from drivers identifying themselves as grandparents were analyzed; also, three grandparent focus groups provided opinions on CPS practices.

Results

During the study 1758 parents transporting 2713 children and 284 grandparents transporting 391 grandchildren were included. While most drivers were restrained and used child occupant restraints, almost 25% of parents and grandparents chose the incorrect seat to transport the child, and greater than 68% had at least one harness error. Grandparents were more likely to have looser lower anchor straps or seat belts and have children younger than thirteen years in the front seat.The focus group-grandparents had a favorable attitude toward CSS. Grandparents acknowledged the need for CSS but opined that CSS were difficult to use. Physical barriers included arthritis, back pain, mobility, decreased strength, and vision problems.

Conclusions

Grandparents and parents were equally likely to use CSS and choose correct seats. Compared to parents, grandparents were more likely to travel with their grandchildren with CSS installed with looser harnesses or an installed CSS with looser seat belt or lower anchors. Additionally, grandparents were more likely to have a child younger than thirteen years in the front seat. The use of community resources such as permanent fitting stations could help grandparents improve a grandchild's travel safety.     

Powered two-wheeler drivers’ crash risk associated with the use of bus lanes

Context

Authorizing powered two-wheeler drivers to drive in lanes reserved to buses is a measure that is sometimes mentioned to improve mobility conditions for these users. But what effect would this measure have on the safety of these users and on the safety of the other users with whom they share the traffic space?

Objective

The objective of this study is to contribute elements to help answer this question. More precisely, the objective is to estimate the risk of having an accident per kilometer driven by powered two-wheeler drivers who drive in bus lanes and to compare this risk with that of powered two-wheeler drivers who drive in general traffic lanes.

Method

Using the bodily injury accidents recorded by the police over two years on 13 roads in the city of Marseille and a campaign of periodical observations of powered two-wheeler traffic, we estimated the risk per kilometer driven by powered two-wheeler drivers who drive in bus lanes and compared it with that of drivers who do not drive in them.

Results

The results show that the risk for powered two-wheeler drivers who drive in bus lanes of being involved in a bodily injury accident is significantly higher than the risk run by drivers who drive in general traffic lanes. For the 13 roads studied, it is on average 3.25 times higher (95% CI: 2.03; 5.21).

Conclusion

In the current situation, powered two-wheeler drivers who drive in bus lanes are less safe than those who drive in general traffic lanes. The analysis of police reports suggests that part of this increased risk comes from collisions between automobile drivers turning right and powered two-wheelers driving in the bus lane who continue straight ahead.     

An investigation of state population characteristics that moderate the relationship of state seat belt law and use in the United States

Objectives

Primary enforcement laws have been shown to be effective methods for increasing seat belt use at the state level.

Method

This study investigates state differences in the effectiveness of primary enforcement laws by assessing whether a state's academic achievement, health ranking, economic prosperity, violent crime rates, government effectiveness, gender distribution, or proportion of rural roads moderate the relationship between those laws and seat belt compliance rates.

Results

Aggregate state-level academic achievement, health ranking, government effectiveness, and proportion of rural roads uniquely moderated the seat belt use differences between primary and secondary enforcement states.

Conclusions

This evidence suggests that cultural, social, and demographic differences among regions may be important factors in explaining state-level differences in the effectiveness of primary enforcement of seat belt laws.     

Management commitment to safety vs. employee perceived safety training and association with future injury

Objectives

The purpose of this study is to explore and examine, specific to the restaurant industry, two important constructs emerging from the safety climate literature: employee perceptions of safety training and management commitment to safety. Are these two separate constructs? Are there both individual- and shared group-level safety perceptions for these two constructs? What are the relationships between these two constructs and future injury outcomes?

Methods

A total of 419 employees from 34 limited-service restaurants participated in a prospective cohort study. Employees’ perceptions of management commitment to safety and safety training and demographic variables were collected at the baseline. The survey questions were made available in three languages: English, Spanish, and Portuguese. For the following 12 weeks, participants reported their injury experience and weekly work hours. A multivariate negative binomial generalized estimating equation model with compound symmetry covariance structure was used to assess the association between the rate of self-reported injuries and measures of safety perceptions.

Results

Even though results showed that the correlation between employees’ perceived safety training and management commitment to safety was high, confirmatory factor analysis of measurement models showed that two separate factors fit the model better than as two dimensions of a single factor. Homogeneity tests showed that there was a shared perception of the factor of management commitment to safety for the restaurant workers but there was no consistent perception among them for the factor of perceived safety training. Both individual employees’ perceived management commitment to safety and perceptions of safety training can predict employees’ subsequent injuries above and beyond demographic variables. However, there was no significant relationship between future injury and employees’ shared perception of management commitment to safety. Further, our results suggest that the variable of employees’ perceived safety training could be a proximal predictor of future injury outcome which mediated the relationship between employees’ perceived management commitment to safety (a distal predictor) and injury outcome. We propose that when employees perceive their management as having a high level of commitment to safety, they will also perceive that the safety training of the organization is good, which will then further predict future injury experience of the employees.     

Risk factors for injury accidents among moped and motorcycle riders

Objective

To study and quantify the effect of factors related to the riders of powered two-wheelers on the risk of injury accident involvement.

Methodology

Based on national data held by the police from 1996 to 2005, we conducted a case–control study with responsibility for the accident as the event of interest. We estimated the odds ratios for accident responsibility. Making the hypothesis that the non-responsible riders in the study are representative of all the riders on the road, we thus identified risk factors for being responsible for injury accidents. The studied factors are age, gender, helmet wearing, alcohol consumption, validity of the subject's driving licence and for how long it has been held, the trip purpose and the presence of a passenger on the vehicle. Moped and motorcycle riders are analyzed separately, adjusting for the main characteristics of the accident.

Results

For both moped and motorcycle riders, being male, not wearing a helmet, exceeding the legal limit for alcohol and travelling for leisure purposes increased the risk of accident involvement. The youngest and oldest users had a greater risk of accident involvement. The largest risk factor was alcohol, and we identified a dose–effect relationship between alcohol consumption and accident risk, with an estimated odds ratio of over 10 for motorcycle and moped riders with a BAC of 2 g/l or over. Among motorcycle users, riders without a licence had twice the risk of being involved in an accident than those holding a valid licence. However, the number of years the rider had held a licence reduced the risk of accident involvement. One difference between moped and motorcycle riders involved the presence of a passenger on the vehicle: while carrying a passenger increased the risk of being responsible for the accident among moped riders, it protected against this risk among motorcycle riders.

Conclusion

This analysis of responsibility has identified the major factors contributing to excess risk of injury accidents, some of which could be targeted by prevention programmes.     

Active transportation: Do current traffic safety policies protect non-motorists?

Objective

This study investigated the impact that state traffic safety regulations have on non-motorist fatality rates.

Methods

Data obtained from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), and the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) were analyzed through a pooled time series cross-sectional model using fixed effects regression for all 50 states from 1999 to 2009. Two dependent variables were used in separate models measuring annual state non-motorist fatalities per million population, and the natural log of state non-motorist fatalities. Independent variables measuring traffic policies included state expenditures for highway law enforcement and safety per capita; driver cell phone use regulations; graduated driver license regulations; driver blood alcohol concentration regulations; bike helmet regulations; and seat belt regulations. Other control variables included percent of all vehicle miles driven that are urban and mean per capita alcohol consumption per year.

Results

Non-motorist traffic safety was positively impacted by state highway law enforcement and safety expenditures per capita, with a decrease in non-motorist fatalities occurring with increased spending. Per capita consumption of alcohol also influenced non-motorist fatalities, with higher non-motorist fatalities occurring with higher per capita consumption of alcohol. Other traffic safety covariates did not appear to have a significant impact on non-motorist fatality rates in the models.

Conclusion

Our research suggests that increased expenditures on state highway and traffic safety and the initiation/expansion of programs targeted at curbing both driver and non-motorist intoxication are a starting point for the implementation of traffic safety policies that reduce risks for non-motorists.     

Emergency healthcare worker sleep,fatigue, and alertness behavior survey (SFAB): Development and content validation of a survey tool

Background

Workplace safety is a recognized concern in emergency medical services (EMS). Ambulance crashes are common and injury rates exceed that of the general working public. Fatigue and sleepiness during shift work pose a safety risk for patients and EMS workers. Changing EMS worker behaviors and improving alertness during shift work is hampered by a lack of instruments that reliably and accurately measure multidimensional beliefs and habits that predict alertness behavior.

Objectives

We sought to test the reliability and validity of a survey tool (the sleep, fatigue, and alertness behavior survey [SFAB]) designed to identify the cognitions of EMS workers concerning sleep, fatigue, and alertness behaviors during shift work.

Methods

We operationalized the integrative model of behavioral prediction (IMBP) and developed a pool of 97 candidate items and sub-items to measure eight domains of the IMBP. Five sleep scientists judged the content validity of each item and a convenience sample of EMS workers completed a paper-based version of the SFAB. We retained items judged content valid by five sleep scientists and performed exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and tests of reliability and internal consistency. We identified a simple factor structure for each scale and calculated means and standard deviations for each item and scale.

Results

We received 360 completed SFAB surveys from a convenience sample of 800 EMS workers attending two regional continuing education conferences (45% participation rate). Forty-seven candidate items and sub-items/options were removed following content validation, EFA, and CFA testing. Analyses revealed a simple factor structure for seven of eight domains and a final pool of 50 items and sub-items/options. Domains include: attitudes, normative beliefs, knowledge, salience, habits, environmental constraints, and intent. EFA tests of self-efficacy items failed to identify a simple factor structure. We retained two self-efficacy items based on Spearman–Brown correlation of 0.23 (p < 0.0001).

Conclusions

Measurement of sleep, fatigue, and alertness behavior among EMS workers is challenging. We describe the development and psychometric testing of a survey tool that may be useful in a variety of applications addressing sleep, fatigue, and alertness behavior among EMS workers.     

The effects of driver identity on driving safety in a retrospective feedback system

Background

Retrospective feedback that provides detailed information on a driver's performance in critical driving situations at the end of a trip enhances his/her driving behaviors and safe driving habits. Although this has been demonstrated by a previous study, retrospective feedback can be further improved and applied to non-critical driving situations, which is needed for transportation safety.

Objectives

To propose a new retrospective feedback system that uses driver identity (i.e., a driver's name) and to experimentally study its effects on measures of driving performance and safety in a driving simulator.

Method

We conducted a behavioral experimental study with 30 participants. “Feedback type” was a between-subject variable with three conditions: no feedback (control group), feedback without driver identity, and feedback with driver identity. We measured multiple aspects of participants’ driving behavior. To control for potential confounds, factors that were significantly correlated with driving behavior (e.g., age and driving experience) were all entered as covariates into a multivariate analysis of variance. To examine the effects of speeding on collision severity in driving simulation studies, we also developed a new index – momentum of potential collision – with a set of equations.

Results

Subjects who used a feedback system with driver identity had the fewest speeding violations and central-line crossings, spent the least amount of time speeding and crossing the central line, had the lowest speeding and central-line crossing magnitude, ran the fewest red lights, and had the smallest momentum of potential collision compared to the groups with feedback without driver identity and without feedback (control group).

Conclusions

The new retrospective feedback system with driver identity has the potential to enhance a person's driving safety (e.g., speeding, central-line crossing, momentum of potential collision), which is an indication of the valence of one's name in a feedback system design.     

The influence of demographic factors,processing speed and short-term memory on Iranian children's pedestrian skills

Objectives

Young children, children from lower socioeconomic status and boys have the highest risk of pedestrian injury. This study examined the relationship between cognition and specific pedestrian skills of these groups of children in Iran.

Methods

180 Iranian children aged 7 and 11 years from lower- and higher-socioeconomic status backgrounds participated in the study. A task to identify safe and dangerous road crossing sites and to plan a safe route to cross a road was administered to measure pedestrian skills. Coding and Digit Span subscales of WISC-R were administered to assess processing speed and short-term memory.

Results

Identifying safe/dangerous road crossing-sites and safe route-construction abilities increased with age. Boys scored higher than girls when identifying road crossing sites but did not differ to girls in route-construction. Lower socioeconomic status children scored higher than higher socioeconomic status children on the route-construction task. Girls from lower socioeconomic status backgrounds scored lowest on the identifying safe/dangerous sites task and girls from higher socioeconomic status backgrounds scored lowest on the route construction task. Speed of processing was a significant predictor for identifying crossing sites and socioeconomic status was a significant predictor for route-construction.

Conclusions

Pedestrian skills are complex and influenced by age, gender, socioeconomic status and cognitive development. Results are discussed in relation to child pedestrian safety research in Iran and road safety education for children.     

Injury incidence rates of cyclists compared to pedestrians,car occupants and powered two-wheeler riders,using a medical registry and mobility data,Rhône County,France

Purpose

In France, the bicycle's modal share is stabilizing after a decline; in some of France's major cities, it has even increased since the 1990s. It is hence relevant to improve the knowledge of the injury risk associated with cycling, compared with other means of transport such as car, walking and powered two-wheeler (PTW) riding.

Methods

The injury incidence rates were estimated by the ratio between accident data and mobility (exposure) data. Two accident data sources were used: police data and hospital-based data (outpatients and inpatients) from the Rhône road trauma Registry. This provides four injury categories: all-injury, hospitalization, serious-injury and fatal-injury. Exposure data were estimated from a regional household travel survey (RTS), using three measures of mobility: number of trips, distance traveled and time spent traveling. The survey was carried out from November 2005 to April 2006, on weekdays, outside school and public holidays; this seasonality was corrected using the 2007–2008 national household travel survey (NTS) that covered an entire year. Only information involving accidents and trips in, and residents of, the Rhône County (1.6 million inhabitants, including the city Lyon) were included in our study. Trends of injury rates were also evaluated in Greater Lyon, using previous travel surveys.

Results

The PTW riders had the highest all-injury, hospitalization, serious-injury and fatal-injury rates, followed by cyclists, and lastly by pedestrians and car occupants. The rates between men and women seemed similar among pedestrians and among car occupants. For car occupants, pedestrians and cyclists, the age group 18–25 years had higher all-injury rate compared with the age group 25–65 years. On the contrary, the age group ≥65 years seemed to have higher hospitalization and serious-injury rates, compared with the age group 25–65 years. For cyclists, the injury rates seemed higher in non-dense areas than in dense areas. Between 1996–1997 and 2005–2006 and with regards to time spent traveling, the all-injury, serious-injury and fatal-injury rates seemed to have decreased for car occupants and cyclists.

Conclusion

The higher risk for PTW riders is confirmed and quantified; it is very high. Decrease in injury rates seems more marked for cyclists; this may indicate the “safety in numbers” effect. Countermeasures for improving road safety could be implemented, especially for vulnerable road user types. However, they will not be sufficient to fill in the gap between the much higher risk for PTW riders and that of car occupants. Exposure-based injury rates can be a tool for monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of policies and programs, and for comparisons between countries.     

Safety perception referents of permanent and temporary employees: Safety climate boundaries in the industrial workplace

Objective

To explore the significant referents of safety perceptions among permanent and temporary employees in order to identify the boundaries of safety climate in a heterogeneous workforce.

Method

Collection of data from semi-structured interviews with employees in manufacturing organizations, using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods to identify basic safety perceptions. Independent raters used content analysis to examine the data.

Results

Analysis of the data revealed differences between safety themes at organization, group and individual levels. Themes relating to the individual were more prevalent among temporary employees, while those relating to the group and the organization prevailed among permanent employees.

Conclusions

Permanent employees view organizational and group levels as significant referents of safety perceptions, while temporary employees focus on the individual level. The results challenge the current view of safety climate as a uniform concept for all employees and prescribe boundary conditions for safety climate. It is suggested that organizations should implement “tailor-made” safety-climate practices according to the referents of employee sub-groups.