Improving Transport Layer Performance in Multihop Ad Hoc Networks by Exploiting MAC Layer Information

The traditional TCP congestion control mechanism encounters a number of new problems and suffers a poor performance when the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol is used in multihop ad hoc networks. Many of the problems result from medium contention at the MAC layer. In this paper, we first illustrate that severe medium contention and congestion are intimately coupled, and TCP's congestion control algorithm becomes too coarse in its granularity, causing throughput instability and excessively long delay. Further, we illustrate TCP's severe unfairness problem due to the medium contention and the tradeoff between aggregate throughput and fairness. Then, based on the novel use of channel busyness ratio, a more accurate metric to characterize the network utilization and congestion status, we propose a new wireless congestion control protocol (WCCP) to efficiently and fairly support the transport service in multihop ad hoc networks. In this protocol, each forwarding node along a traffic flow exercises the inter-node and intra-node fair resource allocation and determines the MAC layer feedback accordingly. The end-to-end feedback, which is ultimately determined by the bottleneck node along the flow, is carried back to the source to control its sending rate. Extensive simulations show that WCCP significantly outperforms traditional TCP in terms of channel utilization, delay, and fairness, and eliminates the starvation problem     

无线自组网与Internet互连中TCP流公平性分析与改进

通过实验与分析揭示了基于IEEE 802.11 MAC的无线自组网与Internet互连时TCP流间的不公平性现象及其产生原因,并基于网关带宽占用对互连环境下TCP流间的公平性进行定义,提出了一种基于网关动态带宽控制的TCP流公平性解决方案TCP-GAFC。TCP-GAFC只在网关节点上进行实现,无需修改TCP协议和MAC协议,具有很好的适用性和可扩展性。仿真实验表明,TCP-GAFC显著地改进了互连环境下TCP流间的公平性,并能达到合理的总吞吐量。     

A Hybrid Collision Avoidance Scheme for Ad Hoc Networks

A novel hybrid collision avoidance scheme that combines both sender-initiated and receiver-initiated collision-avoidance handshake is proposed for multi-hop ad hoc networks. The new scheme is compatible with the popular IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol and involves only some additional queue management and book-keeping work. Simulations of both UDP- and TCP-based applications are conducted with the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol, a measurement-based fair scheme and the new scheme. It is shown that the new scheme can alleviate the fairness problem with almost no degradation in throughput. More importantly, it is shown that without explicit information exchange among nodes, the fairness problem cannot be solved conclusively if reasonable throughput is to be maintained. Hence it calls for further work to integrate the new collision avoidance scheme with other schemes that approximate fair queueing and use more contention information in channel access to achieve some QoS assurances in ad hoc networks.     

Ad hoc网络中DCF公平性分析与改进

在考虑节点的物理载波检测范围大于通信范围的情况下,该文分析了多跳Adhoc网络中物理载波检测机制对IEEE 802.11DCF协议公平性的影响。针对载波干扰给IEEE802.11DCF协议带来的严重不公平问题,提出了一种基于冲突和干扰感知的退避(CIAB)算法。仿真证明,该算法能有效地改善IEEE802.11DCF协议的公平性,并且没有引起网络吞吐量的严重下降。     

Performance Analysis for a New Medium Access Control Protocol in Wireless LANs

One fundamental issue in high-speed wireless local area networks (LANs) is to develop efficient medium access control (MAC) protocols. In this paper, we focus on the performance improvement in both MAC layer and transport layer by using a novel medium access control protocol for high-speed wireless LANs deploying carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). We first present a recently proposed distributed contention-based MAC protocol utilizing a Fast Collision Resolution (FCR) algorithm and show that the proposed FCR algorithm provides high throughput and low latency while improving the fairness performance. The performance of the FCR algorithm is compared with that of the IEEE 802.11 MAC algorithm via extensive simulation studies on both MAC layer and transport layer. The results show that the FCR algorithm achieves a significantly higher efficiency than the IEEE 802.11 MAC and can significantly improve transport layer performance.     

Analytical modeling of bidirectional multi‐channel IEEE 802.11 MAC protocols

This paper presents an analytical approach to model the bi‐directional multi‐channel IEEE 802.11 MAC protocols (Bi‐MCMAC) for ad hoc networks. Extensive simulation work has been done for the performance evaluation of IEEE 802.11 MAC protocols. Since simulation has several limitations, this work is primarily based on the analytical approach. The objective of this paper is to show analytically the performance advantages of Bi‐MCMAC protocol over the classical IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol. The distributed coordination function (DCF) mode of medium access control (MAC) is considered in the modeling. Two different channel scheduling strategies, namely, random channel selection and fastest channel first selection strategy are also presented in the presence of multiple channels with different transmission rates. M/G/1 queue is used to model the protocols, and stochastic reward nets (SRNs) are employed as a modeling technique as it readily captures the synchronization between events in the DCF mode of access. The average system throughput, mean delay, and server utilization of each MAC protocol are evaluated using the SRN formalism. We also validate our analytical model by comparison with simulation results. The results obtained through the analytical modeling approach illustrate the performance advantages of Bi‐MCMAC protocols with the fastest channel first scheduling strategy over the classical IEEE 802.11 protocol for TCP traffic in wireless ad hoc networks. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fair coding for inter‐session network coding in wireless mesh networks

Because of the broadcast and overhearing capability of wireless networks, network coding can greatly improve throughput in wireless networks. However, our investigation of existing inter‐session network coding protocols found that the short‐term unfairness that existed in 802.11‐based medium access control (MAC) protocols actually decreases the coding opportunity, which in turn compromises the throughput gain of network coding. To alleviate the negative impact of this unfairness, we propose a coding‐aware cross‐layer heuristic approach to optimize the coordination of network coding and MAC layer protocol, named FairCoding, which can significantly increase coding opportunities for inter‐session network coding through a fair short‐term traffic allocation for different coding flows. Experiment evaluation shows that the proposed mechanism can bring more coding opportunities and improve the total throughput of wireless mesh networks by up to 20%, compared with the coding mechanism, without considering the negative impact of the short‐term unfairness. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A hybrid multi-channel MAC protocol for wireless ad hoc networks

In a regular wireless ad hoc network, the Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol coordinates channel access among nodes, and the throughput of the network is limited by the bandwidth of a single channel. The multi-channel MAC protocols can exploit multiple channels to achieve high network throughput by enabling more concurrent transmissions. In this paper, we propose a hybrid and adaptive protocol, called H-MMAC, which utilizes multi-channel resources more efficiently than other multi-channel MAC protocols. The main idea is to adopt the IEEE 802.11 Power Saving Mechanism and to allow nodes to transmit data packets while other nodes try to negotiate the data channel during the Ad hoc Traffic Indication Message window based on the network traffic load. The analytical and simulation results show that the proposed H-MMAC protocol improves the network performance significantly in terms of the aggregate throughput, average delay, fairness and energy efficiency.     

Airtime Fairness for IEEE 802.11 Multirate Networks

Under a multirate network scenario, the IEEE 802.11 DCF MAC fails to provide airtime fairness for all competing stations since the protocol is designed for ensuring max-min throughput fairness. As such, the maximum achievable throughput by any station gets bounded by the slowest transmitting peer. In this paper, we present an analytical model to study the delay and throughput characteristics of such networks so that the rate anomaly problem of IEEE DCF multirate networks could be mitigated. We call our proposal time fair CSMA (TFCSMA) which utilizes an interesting baseline property for estimating a target throughput for each competing station so that its minimum contention window could be adjusted in a distributed manner. As opposed to the previous work in this area, TFCSMA is ideally suited for practical scenarios where stations frequently adapt their data rates to changing channel conditions. In addition, TFCSMA also accounts for packet errors due to the time varying properties of the wireless channel. We thoroughly compare the performance of our proposed protocol with IEEE 802.11 and other existing protocols under different network scenarios and traffic conditions. Our comprehensive simulations validate the efficacy of our method toward providing high throughput and time fair channel allocation.     

Design of MAC protocols with fast collision resolution for wireless local area networks

Development of efficient medium access control (MAC) protocols providing both high throughput performance for data traffic and good quality of service (QoS) support for real-time traffic is the current major focus in distributed contention-based MAC protocol research. In this paper, we propose an efficient contention resolution algorithm for wireless local area networks, namely, the fast collision resolution (FCR) algorithm. The MAC protocol with this new algorithm attempts to provide significantly higher throughput performance for data services than the IEEE 802.11 MAC algorithm and more advanced dynamic tuning backoff (DTB) algorithm. We demonstrate that this algorithm indeed resolves collisions faster and reduces the idle slots more effectively. To provide good fairness performance and to support good QoS for real-time traffic, we incorporate the self-clocked fair queueing algorithm and a priority scheme into the FCR algorithm and come up with the real-time FCR (RT-FCR) algorithm, and show that RT-FCR can simultaneously achieve high throughput and good fairness performance for nonreal-time traffic while maintaining satisfactory QoS support for real-time traffic.     

Modeling of Collision Avoidance Protocols in Single-Channel Multihop Wireless Networks

Although there has been considerable work on the performance evaluation of collision avoidance schemes, most analytical work is confined to single-hop ad hoc networks or networks with very few hidden terminals. We present the first analytical model to derive the saturation throughput of collision avoidance protocols in multi-hop ad hoc networks with nodes randomly placed according to a two-dimensional Poisson distribution. We show that the sender-initiated collision-avoidance scheme achieves much higher throughput than the ideal carrier sense multiple access scheme with a separate channel for acknowledgments. More importantly, we show that the collision-avoidance scheme can accommodate much fewer competing nodes within a region in a network infested with hidden terminals than in a fully-connected network, if reasonable throughput is to be maintained. Simulations of the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol and one of its variants validate the predictions made in the analysis. It is also shown that the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol cannot ensure collision-free transmission of data packets and thus throughput can degrade well below what is predicted by the analysis of a correct collision avoidance protocol. Based on these results, a number of improvements are proposed for the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol.     

Randomly Ranked Mini Slots for Fair and Efficient Medium Access Control in Ad Hoc Networks

Ad hoc networks offer infrastructure-free operation, where no entity can provide reliable coordination among nodes. Medium access Control (MAC) protocols in such a network must overcome the inherent unreliability of the network and provide high throughput and adequate fairness to the different flows of traffic. In this paper, we propose a MAC protocol that can achieve an excellent balance between throughput and fairness. Our protocol has two versions: randomly ranked mini slots (RRMS) utilizes control-message handshakes similar to IEEE 802.11. Randomly ranked mini slots with busy tone (RRMS-BT) is the better performer of the two, but requires a receiver busy tone. The protocol makes use of granule time slots and sequences of pseudorandom numbers to maximize spatial reuse and divide the throughput fairly among nodes. We demonstrate the performance of this protocol using simulation with fixed and random topologies and show that these results are robust to difficult network configurations and unsynchronized clocks. We further develop novel metrics of long-term and short-term fairness for rigorous performance evaluation. Our simulation results include a detailed comparison between the proposed protocol and existing protocols that have been shown to excel in terms of throughput or fairness     

一种提高802.11无线Ad Hoc网络公平性的新机制-FFMA

实现多个数据流对无线信道的公平共享是802.11无线Ad Hoc网络中的一个重要议题,但802.11DCF机制在无线Ad Hoc网络中存在严重的公平性问题,甚至有可能出现单个节点或数据流独占信道而其他节点和数据流处于"饥饿"状态的情况.论文提出了一种新颖的保证数据流间公平性的MAC层接入机制FFMA(Flow rate-based Fair Medium Access),通过公平调度和公平竞争的方式,FFMA能够在数据流间公平地分配信道带宽资源.仿真结果表明,在无线Ad Hoc网络中,FFMA可以在保证信道吞吐量的前提下取得远优于802.11 DCF的数据流间的公平性.     

Mobility impact in IEEE 802.11p infrastructureless vehicular networks

Vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) are an extreme case of mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). High speed and frequent network topology changes are the main characteristics of vehicular networks. These characteristics lead to special issues and challenges in the network design, especially at the medium access control (MAC) layer. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive evaluation of mobility impact on the IEEE 802.11p MAC performance. The study evaluates basic performance metrics such as packet delivery ratio, throughput, and delay. An unfairness problem due to the relative speed is identified for both broadcast and unicast scenarios. We propose two dynamic contention window mechanisms to alleviate network performance degradation due to high mobility. The first scheme provides dynamic level of service priority via adaptation to the number of neighboring nodes, while the second scheme provides service priority based on node relative speed. Extensive simulation results demonstrate a significant impact of mobility on the IEEE 802.11p MAC performance, the unfairness problem in the vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communications, and the effectiveness of the proposed MAC schemes.     

基于IEEE 802.11高速无线局域网的速率自适应MAC协议研究

目前的IEEE 802.11标准在物理层提供了对多种发送速率的支持,然而在MAC层却没有规定速率自适应的方法。该文研究了高速IEEE 802.11 无线局域网中的速率自适应方案。首先,提出了EACK协议,EACK使用基本速率发送MAC头,并在ACK帧中携带信道信息,因而能够较快速地响应信道的变化,同时具有少的开销;其次,在EACK基础上,提出了一种恒定发送时间(CEACK)的策略,CEACK能够克服传统IEEE 802.11 DCF MAC协议的理论吞吐量上限,并且具有更好的时间公平性能,能够应用于高速的无线局域网。     

MAC protocols using directional antennas in IEEE 802.11 based ad hoc networks

Using directional antennas can be beneficial for wireless ad hoc networks consisting of a collection of wireless hosts. The most important benefit includes a reduction of the radio interference. Thus, it can significantly increase the spatial reuse, thereby improving the network throughput. To best utilize directional antennas, a suitable Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol must be designed. Current MAC protocols, such as the IEEE 802.11 standard, do not benefit when using directional antennas, because these protocols have been designed for omnidirectional antennas. In this paper, we present modified MAC protocols suitable for 802.11 based ad hoc networks using directional antennas. Our comprehensive simulation results demonstrate the performance improvement obtained with the proposed protocols. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Extended sliding frame R-Aloha: Medium access control (MAC) protocol for mobile networks

Proliferation of mobile communication devices necessitates a reliable and efficient medium access control (MAC) protocol. In this paper, A MAC protocol, called extended sliding frame reservation Aloha (ESFRA), based on sliding frame R-Aloha (SFRA) is proposed for network access technique. ESFRA is particularly designed to solve the mobile hidden station (MHS) problem in a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) by including relative locations of transmitting stations in the packet frame information header. The MHS problem is unique in mobile networks and occurs if a mobile station enters in a collision free zone of any ongoing communication and disturbs this communication with its transmission. In addition to the MHS problem, ESFRA simultaneously solves hidden station, exposed station, and neighborhood capture problems typically observed in wireless networks. A Markov model of ESFRA is developed and provided here to estimate throughput, delay and collision probabilities of the proposed protocol. The Markov modeling is extended to the analysis of SFRA and IEEE 802.11 to compare these competing MAC protocols with ESFRA. The analysis shows that ESFRA decreases frame transmission delay, increases throughput, and reduces collision probabilities compared to IEEE 802.11 and SFRA. ESFRA improves the network throughput 28 percent compared to that of IEEE 802.11, and 33 percent compared to that of SFRA. The improved performance is obtained at the expense of the synchronization compared to IEEE 802.11, but there is virtually no extra cost compared to SFRA.     

Throughput Analysis and Measurements in IEEE 802.11 WLANs with TCP and UDP Traffic Flows

There is a vast literature on the throughput analysis of the IEEE 802.11 media access control (MAC) protocol. However, very little has been done on investigating the interplay between the collision avoidance mechanisms of the 802.11 MAC protocol and the dynamics of upper layer transport protocols. In this paper, we tackle this issue from an analytical, simulative, and experimental perspective. Specifically, we develop Markov chain models to compute the distribution of the number of active stations in an 802.11 wireless local area network (WLAN) when long-lived transmission control protocol (TCP) connections compete with finite-load user datagram protocol (UDP) flows. By embedding these distributions in the MAC protocol modeling, we derive approximate but accurate expressions of the TCP and UDP throughput. We validate the model accuracy through performance tests carried out in a real WLAN for a wide range of configurations. Our analytical model and the supporting experimental outcomes show that 1) the total TCP throughput is basically independent of the number of open TCP connections and the aggregate TCP traffic can be equivalently modeled as two saturated flows; and 2) in the saturated regime, n UDP flows obtain about n times the aggregate throughput achieved by the TCP flows, which is independent of the overall number of persistent TCP connections.     

Power-Controlled MAC Protocols with Dynamic Neighbor Prediction for Ad hoc Networks

1　IntroductionMobileadhocnetworksareasetofmobilenodeswhichformandself configurethenetworkwithoutthepre deployedcentraladministrativein frastructure (e.g .thebasestationofWLAN) .Thedemandforadhocnetworkshasbeenbloominginthepastyearsinthecommercialandmilitaryappli cations ,becauseonlyadhocnetworkscanbeappliedinthesituationswherethecentraladministrativein frastructurecan tbe pre installed (e .g .battlefields,disasterrescue)orisnoteconomicaltoinstallbecauseoftemporaryuse (e .g .ameetingintherent…     

The Design and Evaluation of Unified Cellular and Ad-Hoc Networks

In third-generation (3G) wireless data networks, providing service to low data-rate users is required for maintaining fairness, but at the cost of reducing the cell's aggregate throughput. In this paper, we propose the unified cellular and ad hoc network (UCAN) architecture for enhancing cell throughput while maintaining fairness. In UCAN, a mobile client has both 3G interface and IEEE 802.11 -based peer-to-peer links. The 3G base station forwards packets for destination clients with poor channel quality to proxy clients with better channel quality. The proxy clients then use an ad hoc network composed of other mobile clients and IEEE 802.11 wireless links to forward the packets to the appropriate destinations, thereby improving cell throughput. We refine the 3G base station scheduling algorithm so that the throughput gains are distributed in proportion to users' average channel rates, thereby maintaining fairness. With the UCAN architecture in place, we propose novel greedy and on-demand protocols for proxy discovery and ad hoc routing that explicitly leverage the existence of the 3G infrastructure to reduce complexity and improve reliability. We further propose secure crediting mechanisms to motivate users that are not actively receiving to participate in relaying packets for others. Through both analysis and extensive simulations with HDR and IEEE 802.11b, we show that the UCAN architecture can increase individual user's throughput by more than 100 percent and the aggregate throughput of the HDR downlink by up to 50 percent.