Metabolic consequences of alcohol dependency

Alcohol dependency leads to a variety of biochemical adaptations and morphological changes which may be considered as either adaptive or destructive. This ranges from the utilization of ethanol as a metabolic fuel, to overt tissue and cellular damage, and may lead to increases in morbidity and mortality. Virtually every organ system is affected by either acute and chronic ethanol exposure and numerous metabolic pathways are altered. As a consequence of these wide ranging effects, it is extremely difficult to cover every aspect of alcohol toxicity in a single review. Instead, attention is focussed on selected areas, such as nutrition and protein metabolism in the liver and bone (and to a lesser extent, skeletal muscle and the gastrointestinal tract). The aim is to illustrate the numerous ways in which alcohol affects the body.     

Carbohydrate-deficient transferrin and alcohol dependency: variation in response to alcohol intake among different groups of patients

1. The effects of rilmakalim, a potassium channel opener, were studied on rabbit cardiac Purkinje, ventricular muscle and atrial fibers, with the use of conventional microelectrode techniques. 2. Rilmakalim (0.24-7.2 microM) shortened, in a concentration-dependent manner, the action potential duration (APD) in Purkinje and ventricular muscle without affecting other parameters of the action potential. Pinacidil (30-300 microM) also decreased the APD of Purkinje fibers. 3. Rilmakalim (2.4 microM) and cromakalim (100 microM) hyperpolarized and abolished abnormal automaticity of cardiac Purkinje fibers pretreated with barium (0.2-0.3 mM). Glibenclamide (5 microM) blocked the hyperpolarizing effect. 4. Stable early afterdepolarizations induced in Purkinje fibers by berberine (100 microM) were reversibly blocked by rilmakalim (2.4 microM), which also suppressed late afterdepolarizations induced in Purkinje fibers treated with ouabain (0.3-0.5 microM). 5. The rate of spontaneous discharges of the rabbit sinoatrial node was not affected by rilmakalim (7.2 microM) or by pinacidil (100 microM). Both agents were also unable to affect the APD of atrial muscle fibers. 6. In cardiac Purkinje fibers, tetraethylammonium (TEA; 20 mM) significantly reduced the effects of rilmakalim (2. 4 microM) on the APD. However, neither TEA nor glibenclamide (100 microM) reduced the shortening of the APD induced by dinitrophenol (30 microM) or by salicylate (1 mM).     

Evaluation of two biological markers combined as a parameter of alcohol dependency

An important group of fatal incidents are slow-speed pedestrian non-traffic incidents to children, which account for 14% of accidental deaths from all causes in Victorian children under 5 years of age between 1985 and 1995, and 12% of pedestrian deaths of all ages. In Victoria, Australia, the database of the state Consultative Council on Obstetric and Paediatric Morbidity and Mortality was utilised to identify paediatric slow-speed pedestrian non-traffic-accident deaths in the local population. Additional data relating to the car and its driver, the child, and the circumstances of the incident were abstracted from records kept by the State Coroner and the Victorian compulsory third party traffic injury insurance organisation. Twenty eight Victorian children were identified who had died in one of three types of incident (driverless cars, child interacting with the vehicle and driver, and drivers who were unaware of the child's proximity). These incidents were more common in rural areas compared with urban, usually occurring at the child's home. The child was with or near an adult on all occasions. The vehicle was usually being driven by a relative, and was reversing in a higher proportion of 'unaware' incidents compared with the 'interactive' type. The association of 'off-road' family vehicles and trucks with these incidents appears to be increasing, especially in recent years. These findings suggest some countermeasures, including the separation of vehicle driveways from children's play areas, and object vicinity ultrasonic warning devices for vehicles.     

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised in a sample of clients with alcohol dependency

Previous analyses of the Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised (WMS-R; Wechsler, 1987) have reported one-, two-, and three-factor solutions and raised questions about the validity of the visual memory subtests. These various findings may stem in part from different methods of analysis, and from the study of different participant samples. To address these issues, we analysed data from the WMS-R and a spatial maze test administered to 154 participants with a history of alcohol dependence. Results from confirmatory factor analysis supported the interpretation of three factors underlying the WMS-R subtests and the spatial maze score in this sample, namely, attention-concentration, immediate memory, and delayed recall. This result held despite the inclusion of the maze score which is a well-validated measure of visuo-spatial memory.     

Asymmetrical state dependency from temporary septal area dysfunction in rats.

40 male Long-Evans rats with cannulas implanted in the septal area were conditioned, tested, or both conditioned and tested shortly after intracerebral injection of local anesthetic via the cannulas. A 2–2 factorial design was used to determine whether the presumed state of temporary septal area dysfunction, previously shown to produce amnesia, has state-dependent properties. Results show a state-dependent learning effect: Ss that had been both conditioned and tested in the dysfunctional state remembered the aversive conditioning better than those conditioned in the dysfunctional state but tested in the normal state. Since Ss conditioned in the normal state but tested during septal dysfunction did appear to exhibit conditioned fear when tested, the state-dependent effect was asymmetrical. Performance effects of the procaine injection were observed and accounted for in determining the state-dependent nature of temporary septal area dysfunction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic minority issues in psychology: A reexamination.

Argues that 2 tasks need to be addressed in view of psychology's growing commitment to cultural pluralism in research, theory, and professional practice: The 1st is that ethnic minority group issues are analogous to antinomies in which cherished values and principles are pitted against one another and need to be recognized as such. These paradoxes are evident in at least 5 conflicts: emic vs etic studies, mainstreaming vs pluralism, equal opportunity vs equality of outcome, modal personality vs individual differences, and presence vs absence of racism today. Attempts to find a single, permanent solution are fruitless; the resolution of these issues should be an ongoing process requiring divergent reasoning and diverse solutions. The 2nd task involves the acquisition of power and influence, since means for implementing proposed solutions are necessary. A brief history is provided of ethnic minority efforts in the governing structure of the American Psychological Association. It is suggested that the search for diverse solutions and the attainment of institutionalized influence are vital in increasing pluralism. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavior-genetic-dependent self-selection of alcohol in rats.

Investigated self-selection of alcohol in 30 male and 30 female selectively bred rats: MNR/Har/Lu (f38), MR/Har/Lu (f33), RCA/Lu (F18), RHA/Lu (F18), and RLA/Lu (F18). In Exp. I, self-selection of alcohol of 3 concentrations was tested along with caloric-equivalent glucose solutions and distilled water. Exp. II investigated the simultaneous self-selection of 5, 10, and 20% alcohol solutions. In Exp. III effects of food deprivation on the self-selection of 10% alcohol and distilled water were studied. Self-selection of alcohol was related to the phenotypes of emotional reactivity and avoidance conditionability. Females consumed significantly larger amounts of absolute alcohol than males based on corrected body weight. Validity of sex differences is discussed. (30 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Taste reactivity to alcohol in rats.

Rats were infused intraorally with 4 concentrations of ethanol (3%, 6%, 9%, and 12%), and their subsequent oral, facial, and bodily responses were videotaped and analyzed. Naive rats did not display significant changes in ingestive-type responding over the concentrations tested. A significant increase in aversive responses was noted, with the largest number of aversive responses found with the 12% solution. Initial reactivity failed to predict subsequent consumption when rats were given free access to the same alcohol concentrations during 2-bottle tests. Reactivity testing after the period of alcohol access indicated that only the aversive responding changed significantly from the initial reactivity, with rats showing fewer aversive responses. The results indicated how the taste of alcohol is perceived by naive rats and how this perception is changed after consummatory experience with alcohol. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuman's framework and ventilator dependency: a pilot study

The purpose of this article is to illustrate how the Neuman systems model guided a pilot study with ventilator-dependent patients. Mechanical ventilation was the external stressor to which these subjects reacted. The interaction of Neuman's client system variables was investigated to see which variables most influenced the weaning process. The pilot served to link model concepts with research variables and to identify appropriate procedures and tools for data collection.     

Addressing chemical dependency: a need for consistent measures

A study surveyed RNs and LPNs who had been involved in the Board of Nursing's discipline process for chemical dependency. The association between the type of disciplinary action taken and the perceived benefits to recovery are rated.     

Milgram and the Holocaust: A reexamination.

The Milgram obedience studies are widely presented in psychology textbooks as integral to understanding the behavior of Holocaust perpetrators. Recent appraisals of the Milgram legacy have not challenged this view. Discussions of the Holocaust in the historical literature are often cited by psychologists to support the claim of the centrality of the Milgram studies to understanding the Holocaust. More recent historical literature presents a different view of the Holocaust, one that directly questions the relevance of Milgram's obedience studies in understanding the Holocaust. This view has not been well represented in discussions of Milgram in psychology, and is discussed here. The nature of the evidence for the ecological validity of the Milgram studies, and the broader issue of the role of the Milgram studies as "scientific parables" are also discussed. Authors of future psychology textbooks may wish to examine the controversial nature of the claim that Milgram's studies are central to understanding the Holocaust more fully. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of alcohol on bacterial translocation in rats

Bacterial translocation has been proposed to be important in the pathophysiology of sepsis, as well as to be a consequence of sepsis. To study the effect of alcohol on bacterial translocation from the gut, normal Sprague-Dawley rats were administered alcohol by gavage by two regimens: Acute (3.7 g/kg, one dose) or Subacute (1 of 2 doses, 2.4 or 3.7 g/kg/day once daily for 14 days). Mesenteric lymph node cultures were performed, and portal venous blood was assayed for endotoxin. Ileal and cecal permeability studies were performed in the Acute and Subacute groups using fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled dextrans of either 4,000 or 70,000 kDa size. As an index of the effect of systemic endotoxin, tissues from mesenteric lymph nodes, liver, and intestinal Peyer's patches were assayed for the presence of mRNA for tumor necrosis factor. Additionally, because extrapulmonary sepsis has been shown to suppress pulmonary antibacterial defenses, animals in the Subacute group were challenged by aerosol inoculation with Pseudomonas aeruginosa to determine bacterial clearance and alveolar cellular responses. The results show that neither of the alcohol regimens resulted in bacterial growth from mesenteric lymph nodes or portal blood. Animals in the Subacute group had more endotoxin present in portal blood than did the Control group (92.9 pg/ml vs. 40.2 pg/ml; p < 0.02). None of the animals had demonstrable mRNA for tumor necrosis factor in any of the tissues assayed. There were no demonstrable increases in ileal or cecal permeability for either the small or large molecular weight dextran in either alcohol group. Furthermore, there was no delay in the clearance of P. aeruginosa from the lung in the Subacute group, but these animals recruited fewer neutrophils into the airspaces in response to this challenge than did the Control animals. Thus, alcohol intoxication does not result in bacterial translocation from the gut in this model. Despite higher levels of portal venous endotoxin in the animals in the Subacute alcohol group, no adverse systemic consequences of this phenomenon could be demonstrated.     

Increased alcohol drinking in isolate-housed alcohol-preferring rats.

Alcoholism is a complex disorder influenced by interactions between genetic and environmental risk factors. This study examined the influence of isolate housing on ethanol intake in alcohol-preferring (P) and non-alcohol-preferring (NP) rats. Rats were isolate-housed or pair-housed for 8 weeks when between 45 and 96 days old. Ethanol drinking was assessed using a 24-hr preference test (10% ethanol vs. water) and 20-min limited access tests. A behavioral test battery was used to assess anxiety-like, depressive-like, acoustic startle, and motor behavior. Isolate housing increased home cage drinking in both lines and increased limited access drinking selectively in P rats. Isolation also reduced swim test immobility and prepulse inhibition in P rats and increased locomotor stereotypies in NP rats. Taken together, these data demonstrate that Line × Environment interactions influence the effects of isolation. Furthermore, isolation selectively increased ethanol intake in high drinking P rats. This effect was not correlated with changes in other behaviors. Selective enhancement of limited access ethanol drinking in P rats may represent a model whereby genetic liability to excessive drinking is enhanced by specific environmental exposures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fractional absorption of L-carnitine after oral administration in rats: evaluation of absorption site and dose dependency

We evaluated the fractional absorption of L-carnitine, a gamma-amino acid essential cofactor for the transfer of long-chain fatty acids, in rats in vivo after oral administration to determine its absorption behavior. At both low (0.05 micromol/rat) and high (100 micromol/rat) doses, L-carnitine was recovered only from the region of the cecum and below at 10 h after administration. During a major shift in distribution from cecum at 10 h to feces at 24 h, there was no significant change in the total recovery at each dose, suggesting that L-carnitine absorption is negligible in the cecum and the large intestine (colon and rectum). However, the recovery of L-carnitine was incomplete and the fraction recovered was larger at the high dose than at the low dose. The fractions absorbed were estimated to be 96.7 and 33.0% for the low and high doses, respectively, as these were the fractions that disappeared from the gastrointestinal tract. These values were comparable with 100 and 42%, respectively, of bioavailability values by the pharmacokinetic analysis of plasma concentration data in our preceding study [Matsuda et al., Biopharmaceutics & Drug Disposition, in press]. These results suggest that L-carnitine is significantly absorbed only in the small intestine, without undergoing first-pass degradation, and in a dose-dependent manner presumably due to the involvement of saturable transport by L-carnitine carriers. Consistent with the suggestions in vivo, L-carnitine absorption in the closed intestinal loop in situ was concentration-dependent in the small intestine but not in the large intestine, and the apparent membrane permeability in the large intestine was smaller by an order of magnitude than that of passive transport in the small intestine. These findings support our preceding kinetic modeling strategy assuming the small intestine to be the sole absorption site, and should be of help in guiding studies on development of more efficient oral L-carnitine delivery strategies.     

Sex differences in dependency: a comparison of objective and projective measures

The relationship between scores on two widely used measures of dependency--one objective and one projective--was examined in a sample of 102 undergraduate subjects (60 women and 42 men). Consistent with previous studies in this area, significant sex differences were found on the objective measure of dependency, with women obtaining higher dependency scores than men. However, as predicted, men and women obtained comparable scores on the projective measure of dependency. Additional analyses confirmed that scores on the objective and projective measures of dependency were significantly intercorrelated in both men and women, although the magnitudes of these correlations were somewhat larger in women than in men. Implications of these results for the assessment of dependent personality traits in research and clinical settings are discussed.     

Automaticity in conversations: A reexamination of the mindlessness hypothesis.

The automatic processing of an ordinary conversation, or what has been called mindlessness (Langer, Blank, & Chanowitz, 1978), implies that comprehension of conversation is based almost entirely on generic knowledge. As a consequence, memory of what was said will contain typical events but virtually no idiosyncratic information. To test this prediction, we conducted a field experiment in which college students were individually approached and asked to perform a small favor. Attention was either induced or allowed to operate naturally. Specifically, half of the students were warned beforehand of the forthcoming request and told to pay close attention and half were not forewarned. As expected, regardless of the condition, the generic features of the request were well remembered. On the other hand, memory for idiosyncratic information, namely, specific words used in the request, decreased when the structure of the conversation conformed to cultural conventions and when attention to the request was not induced. Findings cast doubt on the perfect automaticity suggested by the mindlessness hypothesis (Langer et al., 1978). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-serving biases in person perception: A reexamination of projection as a mechanism of defense.

Examines the evidence on projection as a mechanism of psychological defense, with emphasis on D. S. Holmes's (see PA, Vols 42:10594 and 62:3649) reviews. In contrast to Holmes's conclusions, it appears that there is strong support for 2 distinct mechanisms: (a) attributive projection in which a self-ascribed undesirable trait is projected onto favorably perceived target persons and (b) classical projection in which an undesirable trait that is denied is projected onto unfavorably perceived target persons. Although there is no research on the effects of classical projection, there is reliable evidence indicating that attributive projection has a stress-reducing effect. A broadened interactional formulation of self-serving biases in person perception is presented, and the implications for future research are discussed. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)