Selective attention and performance with a multidimensional visual display.

Studied selective attention, using data from 63 adult Ss collected in 4 experiments in which stimuli varied in both spatial location and visual form. In Exp I, the likely location and likely form of targets were both precued. An advantage was found for cued over uncued forms at both cued and uncued locations. In Exps II, III, and IV, different forms tended to occur at different locations. Regardless of whether a location was cued or uncued, form selective effects were found in accordance with form probability for that location. It was not the case that selective attention simply favored certain locations or certain stimulus forms in preference to others. Rather, selective attention was sensitive to precise combinations of form and location. It is concluded that these results can not be reconciled with mental spotlight notions of spatial selectivity. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-directed attention, awareness of bodily states, and suggestibility.

Two studies tested the hypothesis that self-directed attention would cause increased awareness of internal states and would thus reduce suggestibility effects. Exp I applied this reasoning to the experience of an emotion. 55 male undergraduates viewed moderately arousing slides of female nudes after being led to expect the slides to be either highly arousing or nonarousing. As predicted, ratings of the slides corresponded less with these experimentally manipulated anticipations when self-focus was heightened by the presence of a mirror than when it was not. Exp II examined a different internal experience: the perception of taste. Ss were 41 male and 31 female undergraduates. Some Ss were led to expect a strong flavor as part of a test series, and other Ss were led to expect a weak flavor. Ss high in private self-consciousness (assessed by the A. Fenigstein et al 1975 scale) were less affected by this expectancy manipulation and more accurate in reporting their actual internal state than Ss low in private self-consciousness. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sampling of similar and dissimilar comparison persons and objects as a function of the generality of attribution goal.

Conducted an information-search procedure in which Ss were asked to seek information regarding persons and objects in order to validate a given person or object cause. Four hypotheses were tested: When asked to validate a person cause, Ss are more likely to select distinctiveness information than target-object consensus information. When asked to validate an object cause, Ss are more likely to select target-object consensus information than distinctiveness information. As the generality of person inference increases, progressively dissimilar object comparisons are sought. As the generality of object inference increases, progressively dissimilar person comparisons are sought. In Exp I, 26 undergraduates read attitude statements and answered judgment goals or questions about the statement's generality or object inference. 52 undergraduates in Exp II completed a similar task. The first 3 hypotheses were supported in both Exp I and Exp II, whereas the 4th hypothesis received only mixed support in Exp I and was not supported in Exp II. Unlike Exp I, Exp II did not include cues suggesting the relevant type of information to be sought. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Misleading postevent information and recall of the original event: Further evidence against the memory impairment hypothesis.

Evaluated the hypothesis that misleading postevent information impairs memory for the original event using 174 undergraduates in Exp I and 228 Ss in Exp II. Ss were assigned either to a recall test condition or an original recognition test condition. Ss viewed a sequence of slides depicting an event, read a postevent narrative that presented neutral or misleading information about critical details, and were tested on their ability to recall the critical details. No difference in recall performance between misled and control conditions was found. These results, in conjunction with the finding of M. McCloskey and M. Zaragoza (see record 1986-03053-001) that misleading information did not affect Ss' ability to recognize original information, argue strongly against the memory impairment hypothesis. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of locus of control, cueing, and relevance on memory for passages.

24 internal and 24 external (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) undergraduates read 6 passages representing 3 operationally-defined levels of relevance under either a cued (informed of memory test) or uncued (not informed of memory test) condition. On a retention test 24 hrs later, internals scored consistently higher than externals. Ss performed best on material of high relevance, with their scores declining systematically on material of medium and low relevance. Results do not support the contention derived from social learning theory that internals would only be superior to externals on relevant material under uncued instruction. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An evaluation of spatial information processing in aged rats.

The spatial learning abilities of young, middle-age, and senescent rats were investigated in 2 experiments using several versions of the Morris water maze task. In Exp I, Long-Evans hooded rats were trained to find a submerged escape platform hidden within the water maze. Aged Ss exhibited acquisition deficits compared with either young or middle-age Ss. With continued training, all age groups eventually achieved comparable asymptotic levels of performance. To identify the basis of the age-related impairments observed in Exp I, naive young and aged Ss in Exp II were initially tested for their ability to locate a cued escape platform in the water maze. The escape latencies of both young and aged Ss rapidly decreased to equivalent asymptotic levels. Following cue training, young Ss exhibit a significant spatial bias for the region of the testing apparatus where the platform was positioned during training. In contrast, aged Ss showed no spatial bias. Training was continued in Exp II using a novel submerged platform location for each S. During these place training trials, the escape latencies of senescent Ss were longer than those of young Ss. These impairments were also accompanied by a lack of spatial bias among aged Ss relative to young controls. Results indicate that age-related impairments in water maze performance reflect a specific deficit in the ability of aged rats to utilize spatial information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spatial constraints on the voluntary control of attention across visual space.

Investigated the extent to which attention can be voluntarily allocated across the visual field during a single fixation. In Exp I, 20 undergraduates made a reaction time (RT) response to a stimulus occurring in a cued or a noncued location while maintaining a center fixation. In Exp II, 3 naive and 5 experienced undergraduates underwent a replication of Exp I and were monitored for horizontal eye movement during head restraint. Results from Exp I indicate that Ss were constrained to voluntarily attending to a single primary focus in space, and these findings were supported in Exp II. Data replicate those found by M. I. Posner et al (see record 1981-11809-001). (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exact and conceptual repetition dissociate conceptual memory tests: Problems for transfer appropriate processing theory.

Tested whether a conceptual implicit memory test exhibited repetition effects similar to those found in free recall. 555 Ss participated in 3 experiments. In Exp 1, Ss rated a series of target words and their associates according to their degree of pleasantness in the implicit word-fragment completion and cued recall, and category cued and free recall tests. In Exp 2, Air Force recruits were tested on the category instance generation (CIG) and 4 additional tests in Exp 1. Exp 3 tested the Ss for CIG or category cued recall using instructions for relational process. Both CIG and category cued recall exhibited conceptual repetition effects. Category cued recall showed important differences between CIG and free recall. Theoretical implications are discussed. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Orienting attention within visual fields: How efficient is interhemispheric transfer?

Five experiments, with 54 undergraduates, examined the effect of attentional orienting on lexical decisions within visual half-fields. In Exp I, following assessment of baseline performance, Ss were instructed to improve performance to the right or left of the fixation point. In Exp II, trials were run in blocks with all items to 1 side of the fixation point. In Exp III, completely valid position indicators as to the location of the next item to be shown were presented prior to the stimulus item. In Exp IV, to examine practice effects, no instructions or cuing were given to Ss. In Exp V, Ss were urged to improve performance, but with no instructions as to location. Findings show that consistent visual field differences in lexical decision performance were present even when Ss were informed of the spatial location of the next stimulus item and that lexical decision information initially input to 1 cerebral hemisphere was primarily processed in that hemisphere. Interhemispheric transfer of this type of language information seems to be done primarily as the end product of a cognitive process. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory, retrieval, and contingency judgments.

Examined the likelihood that only a portion of the relevant information will be accessed when people consider the contingency between 2 variables, thus resulting in erroneous judgments. Inasmuch as people estimate contingency largely on the basis of frequency rather than probability information, severe imbalance in the marginal frequencies of either variable is a condition likely to lead to such errors. In Exp I, 243 undergraduates were exposed to the evidence in a 2?×?2 contingency table, where the 2 marginal frequencies for each variable differed in a ratio of 2:1. Ss were then cued to recall information corresponding to either a row or column of the table and judged the contingency between the 2 factors. It was found that the particular sample that was recalled significantly influenced the subsequent contingency judgment. In Exp II, 112 undergraduates read a mock news article in which 2 populations of differing frequencies were described. Analogous to Exp I, different forms of the article implicitly cued different samples of information. Later judgments about the intellectual ability of the 2 populations were influenced by the sample of information that was cued. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Real and simulated occurrences of memory distortion in hypnosis.

79 undergraduates were prescreened for high or low susceptibility to hypnosis (Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility—Form A) and tested individually to examine memory distortion in hypnosis. Independent groups of Ss were allocated to a 2?×?2 factorial design in which S grouping (hypnotic or simulating) was crossed with an information condition that either misled or did not mislead Ss about a series of scenes depicting an apparent robbery. It was hypothesized that memory distortion would characterize the performance of hypnotic Ss when memory was examined in unstructured, narrative recall. Results show that real Ss were differentiated appreciably from simulating Ss in the extent to which they incorrectly intruded uncued errors (i.e., errors not arising from misleading information) into their memories but not in their intrusion of cued errors (i.e., errors arising from misleading information). Real Ss remembered correctly more detail of a peripheral kind but also distorted more with respect to the same kind of detail. Results overall negate the view that earlier memory traces are revived in hypnosis, thereby leading to more accurate retrieval, and suggest that hypnotic Ss bring distinctive styles of information processing to bear on their recollections of complex, socially meaningful events. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of comparison training on children's referential communication.

Assessed whether teaching children to engage in comparison activity improves their referential communication performance. In contrast to previous communication training studies, the training focused on a specifiable unitary skill, employed a teaching procedure with known effectiveness, and controlled for practice and other familiarity effects. Two training experiments with 3rd- and 4th-grade children were conducted. Results from Exp I indicate that 33 trained Ss improved more than 32 control Ss in communication accuracy. Furthermore, gains were maintained at the 1-mo follow-up. Exp II (20 undergraduates; 43 children) examined training effects on message appraisal as well as message production. Results indicate significant training effects on both tasks. Results demonstrate that inadequate comparison processing contributes to children's poor communication performance. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unsolicited interpretation and recall of interpersonal events.

Conducted 4 experiments with a total of 246 undergraduates to examine the variables that influence interpretations and cued recall of interpersonal events. In Exp I, Ss were given a set to empathize with or to be detached from a couple who were shown having an intimate discussion on videotape. The discussion culminated in either a seriously or a moderately negative outcome (SO or MO). A greater amount of attribution (AT) and more accurate recall were found for the empathy set vs the detached set. Greater AT was also found for SO vs MO conditions. In Exp II with a different videotaped event, an SO version and a set to remember the event led to more AT than did an MO version or no set, respectively. Memory-set Ss showed greater recall than no-memory set Ss. In Exp III, Ss given a set to anticipate interaction with 1 of the stimulus persons showed more AT and more accurate recall (R) than did Ss given no such set and an SO led to more AT than did an MO. In Exp IV, Ss given a set about the emotional condition of a stimulus person before observing the event exhibited greater AT and more accurate recall than did Ss given the same set after observing the event or Ss given no set at all. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Detecting and identifying change: Additions versus deletions.

Examined the recognition of changes in the features of objects as a function of the nature of the change (i.e., additions, deletions, no change). In 2 experiments with a total of 148 undergraduates both detection (noticing whether the stimulus had changed) and identification (specifying the exact nature of the change) were assessed. In Exp I, Ss were not aware of subsequent detection and identification tasks while they initially viewed study slides of the to-be-changed stimuli. Results indicate that during subsequent presentation of the test stimuli, detection and identification were superior for additions. In Exp II, when Ss were aware of the subsequent recognition tasks while viewing each study slide, a detection advantage for deletions was obtained. Identification performance depended on a further factor, whether the features of a stimulus were codable. Only in codable stimuli were deletions easier to identify than additions. It is concluded that the differences between the 2 experiments in detecting and identifying additions vs deletions are consistent with A. Tversky's research that stresses the importance of specifying which representation (the study stimulus or the test stimulus) is the subject of comparison in the comparative judgment. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The problem of creating habits: Establishing health-protective dental behaviors.

Conducted 3 experiments on treatments to promote the performance of health-protective dental behaviors. Ss included 40 female college students (Exp 1), 36 undergraduates (Exp 2), and 81 older college students (aged 22–56 yrs) at risk for gum disease (Exp 3). The interventions, derived from social cognitive theory, included health education, skills training, and self-monitoring. Each study examined the contribution of additional treatment components, including social support (Exp 1), intensive contact (Exp 2), and flexible goal setting (Exp 3). Behavioral results were similar in that Ss exhibited excellent adherence while in the study but at follow-up reported behavior that differed little from baseline. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concreteness of relational effects on recall of adjective–noun pairs.

Studied the effects of concreteness and relatedness of adjective–noun pairs on free recall, cued recall, and memory integration. The authors report on 2 experiments in which Ss read phrases or sentences containing adjective–noun pairs that vary in rated concreteness and intrapair relatedness. In Exp 1 normative ratings on imagery and relatedness were provided by 23 graduate and 20 undergraduate students. 64 undergraduates participated in the memory experiment. Exp 2 extended Exp 1 by using complete sentences rather than adjective–noun word pairs. 72 undergraduates volunteered to participate in the memory experiment and a separate group of 14 volunteered to participate in a sentence rating task. Consistent with predictions from dual coding theory and prior results with noun–noun pairs, both experiments showed that the effects of concreteness were strong and independent of relatedness in free recall and cued recall. The 2 attributes also had independent (additive) effects on integrative memory as measured by conditionalized free recall of pairs. Integration as measured by the increment from free to cued recall occurred consistently only when pairs were high in both concreteness and relatedness. Relatedness, adjective imagery, and noun imagery ratings, along with word frequencies for adjectives and nouns, and sentences with relatedness ratings are appended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of intertrial reinstatement of training stimuli on complex maze learning in rats: Evidence that "acquisition" curves reflect more than acquisition.

In Exps I–III (224 male Sprague-Dawley rats), Ss were run in a complex maze to escape weak footshock or to approach an appetitive reinforcer. Extramaze intertrial reinstatement of the same reinforcer as that used in training was found to enhance subsequent maze performance. Exp IV (80 Ss) determined that appetitively and aversively motivated performance benefitted from brief intertrial exposures to the start box of the maze. In Exp V (64 Ss), a facilitatory effect indicated that memory trace activity need not be maintained between training and reinstatement or between reinstatement and subsequent training. Exp VI (80 Ss) examined the effects of reinstatement at the beginning, middle, or end of 5-min intertrial intervals and found enhanced performance in the last 2 conditions. Exp VII (24 Ss) established that 4 successive reinstatement treatments without interpolated training trials were no more beneficial than a single reinstatement. Exp VIII (16 Ss) determined that forgetting had occurred over the standard 5-min interval between training trials. Exp IX (32 Ss) found that reinstatement alleviated forgetting that had already transpired. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of distinctive features on recognition of incomplete pictures.

Conducted 2 experiments to determine the effects of distinctive features on recognition of incomplete pictures. Two sets of fragmented picture stimuli were designed: Set A preserved 75% and Set B preserved 25% of the distinctive features of the objects pictured. Within each set of stimuli, a complete (C), an intermediate (I), and a most incomplete (MI) representation of the objects was constructed. In Exp I, 60 Ss of 3 different age groups (3–4 and 5–6 yrs and undergraduates) were tested on the MI representations of either Set A or Set B. Results indicate significant differences in the age groups and in stimulus sets. In Exp II, 36 children (mean age 4 yrs 6 mo) were trained on either the C or the I Set A or the I Set B representations. After a day's delay, the Ss were tested on Set A or Set B MI representations of the objects and to novel representations. Results show significant differences among training conditions and in the test of the stimulus sets. The concepts of filtering and abstraction of distinctive features as discussed by F. J. Gibson (1969) are used in interpreting the results. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bizarre imagery: The misremembered mnemonic.

Conducted 2 experiments with 56 undergraduates to measure the effects of bizarre imagery and image interaction on the brief and long-term memory of word pairs. Ss in Exp I performed an incidental learning task and were administered free- and cued-recall tests either 5 min or 1 wk after the task. Ss in Exp II received more intensive training in the learning task and completed 2 cued-recall tests in the same session and another cued-recall test 1 wk later. In both experiments, bizarre imagery did not improve memory more than plausible, interactive imagery. The degree of interaction in the image was a strong determinant of cued-recall performance at both retention intervals. Most Ss in Exp II believed that they had remembered more bizarre than plausible pairs, even though this was clearly not the case. Possible reasons for the acceptance of the notion that bizarre imagery improves memory are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learned helplessness and learned resourcefulness: Effects of noncontingent success and failure on individuals differing in self-control skills.

In Exp I, 72 undergraduates were assessed using the Self-Control Schedule and received noncontingent success-, failure-, or no-feedback on a task that ostensibly assessed therapeutic abilities. Ss were subsequently tested on insolvable puzzles. In Exp II, 72 undergraduates followed the same procedure as in Exp I but were subsequently tested on solvable anagrams. Results show that the performance of Ss with low resourcefulness (LR) in self-control skills on the insolvable puzzles was debilitated by the helplessness induction, while Ss with high resourcefulness (HR) and LR Ss showed equal helplessness-induced deficits on the anagrams. As predicted from the self-control model, HR Ss more frequently checked statements indicating positive self-evaluations and task-oriented thoughts and less frequently checked negative self-evaluations than did LR Ss during exposure to uncontrollability in both experiments. It is concluded that the self-control model best accounts for Ss' self-reactions during exposure to uncontrollability or failure, while the learned helplessness model accounts for the generalization of helplessness from uncontrollable situations to controllable ones. The list of self-referent statements used in the experiments is appended. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)