The volumetric erosion of electrical contacts

In this paper a method for measuring the volume of eroded electrical contacts is presented. The main emphasis is on the measurement of volume relative to a contact support surface, allowing severely eroded contacts to be measured. A noncontact system is described, which allows contacts to be evaluated for volume change without the contact being removed from contact supports. The accuracy of the measurement method is discussed and results show how the volume measurement can be used to evaluate contact performance. Results are presented on the erosion characteristics of Ag/SnO₂ contacts used in automotive relays. A new measurement methodology is presented which will allow for the evaluation of the performance of relay contacts in devices     

The unusual electrical erosion of high tungsten content, tungstencopper contacts switching load current in vacuum

The electrical erosion of high tungsten content, tungsten-copper (7-10 wt.% Cu) was investigated. The contacts were placed in a vacuum interrupter envelope with a background pressure of about 10^-6 torr. The contacts switched one half cycle of 60 Hz current per operation. The polarity of the current was changed on each operation. Six contact pairs were investigated. Each pair was subjected to an ever-increasing number of operations: 1 K, 5 K, 10 K, 20 K, 40 K, 50 K, and 60 K. The contact erosion was inferred by measuring the linear position of the moving contact terminal. On completing the electrical testing, the vacuum interrupters were dismantled and the contact surfaces were observed. Unlike the previous work on Ag-WC (50 wt.% Ag) and Cu-Cr (75 wt.% Cu), the W-Cu contacts showed a localized build up of erosion products on the contact surfaces even beginning at 1 K operations. The experiments were repeated switching a unidirectional current i.e., the contacts remained at the same polarity throughout the experiments. Here an anode pip and a cathode crater were formed immediately. The difference in the topographies of these contacts is discussed in terms of the metallographic analysis of the deposits on the contacts, the erosion deposits on the shields surrounding the contacts and the expansion of the vacuum arc     

Micro-Arcing and Arc Erosion Minimization Using a DC Hybrid Switching Device

Hybrid switching devices utilize the advantages of both conventional electrical contacts and solid state electronics to minimize arcing during opening and closing operations. This can result in higher reliability and reduces the need for high cost specialist contact materials. The hybrid switch does not eliminate arcing completely, due to the inductive nature of circuits; micro-arcing is known to occur. An experimental dc hybrid switching device is introduced which minimizes arcing for 42 V applications. The characteristics of micro-arcing are investigated to determine the factors which influence the duration of micro-arcs. Surface profiling techniques are used to determine low level contact erosion. The magnitude of contact erosion is related to the micro-arcing.     

Imaging myocardial strain

Measuring the local mechanical activity of the heart has lagged behind the measurement of electrical activity due to a lack of measurement tools. Myocardial wall motion abnormalities have been studied for years in the context of regional ischemia. Implanted beads and screws have been used to measure the mechanical activity of the heart in a few isolated regions. Over the past decade, precise and accurate methods for measuring local three-dimensional (3-D) myocardial motion with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have been developed using presaturation tagging patterns, velocity encoded phase maps, and displacement encoded phase maps. Concurrently, the quality of cardiac MRI images improved greatly with the use of customized receiver coils and the speed of acquisition has increased dramatically with the advent of undersampling techniques and new generations of MR machines with faster switching gradient coils. The use of these cardiac MRI techniques to produce an image of the local deformation of the heart in the form of a myocardial strain image is described. Using these images, the “mechanical activation” of the heart are defined, that is, the time of onset of contraction. A map of the mechanical activation over the heart is a direct analogy to an electrical activation map of the heart     

Manifold studies of nonlinear antenna array geometries

The manifold of a general two- or three-dimensional (2-D or 3-D) array of sensors is studied using differential geometry. By considering the azimuth and elevation angles as the parameters of interest, a manifold surface is formed embedded in a multidimensional complex space, initially, this surface is investigated by establishing a number of differential geometry parameters associated with the array manifold. Then, the concept of development is proposed for mapping manifold surfaces (embedded in a multidimensional complex space) on the real 2-D parameter plane. The proposed mapping preserves certain differential geometry characteristics of the manifold surface and provides a simplified representation for the analysis. The potential benefits of this mapping, as well as of the proposed parameters, are demonstrated in the analysis of 3-D and planar arrays of omnidirectional sensors and in a number of potential applications, varying from array design to handling the array ambiguity problem     

Tomographic Reconstruction of Three-Dimensional Volumes Using the Distorted Born Iterative Method

Although real imaging problems involve objects that have variations in three dimensions, a majority of work examining inverse scattering methods for ultrasonic tomography considers 2-D imaging problems. Therefore, the study of 3-D inverse scattering methods is necessary for future applications of ultrasonic tomography. In this work, 3-D reconstructions using different arrays of rectangular elements focused on elevation were studied when reconstructing spherical imaging targets by producing a series of 2-D image slices using the 2-D distorted Born iterative method (DBIM). The effects of focal number f/#, speed of sound contrast Deltac, and scatterer size were considered. For comparison, the 3-D wave equation was also inverted using point-like transducers to produce fully 3-D DBIM image reconstructions. In 2-D slicing, blurring in the vertical direction was highly correlated with the transmit/receive elevation point-spread function of the transducers for low Deltac. The eventual appearance of overshoot artifacts in the vertical direction were observed with increasing Deltac. These diffraction-related artifacts were less severe for smaller focal number values and larger spherical target sizes. When using 3-D DBIM, the overshoot artifacts were not observed and spatial resolution was improved. However, results indicate that array configuration in 3-D reconstructions is important for good image reconstruction. Practical arrays were designed and assessed for image reconstruction using 3-D DBIM.     

Experiments concerning the life testing of semiconductor devices—II. Life testing of transistors in switching operation mode

Usual methods of d.c. electrical stress applied on transistors as a means of long-run life test and bound mainly to thermally activated surface degradation processes, are less informative in relation to degradation in switching service. Here, a method is described where transistors are tested in c.b. switching circuit with a fixed 50 Hz repetition rate and exactly adjustable amount of switching-on-and-off transient energies, allowing large batches to be tested economically. The executed life-testing apparatus, employing an all-solid-state 250 A pulser, is also dealt with. Accelerated test experiments showed that temperature plays only a minor role and the main parameters influencing degradation are the magnitude and duration of turn-over transients as well as the collector pulse current stress level. Degradation is related chiefly to volumetric causes, e.g. structural failures only when the pulse current level is sufficiently high. Experiments showed that collector current stress levels within the data-sheet limits were inefficient for developing the characteristic volumetric failure mechanisms, the latter being “masked” by usual surface degradation mechanisms. The suggested method is of most use as a screen-test.     

基于共形对应的球面图像的计算全息图

研究了基于共形对应的球面图像的计算全息图(CGH)的生成和重现.通常,当用平面波照射全息图时,所重现的图像一般显示在平面上.共形对应在计算机图形学中被广泛应用,它可以将平面图像和任意曲面对应.相对于简单的坐标变换,共形对应关系具有很多优点,如它可以保持变换前后图像之间的几何形状不变性等.将共形对应引入计算机全息图的生成过程中,利用平面与球面的共形对应关系,生成显示于球面的二维图像的计算全息图,并由所生成全息图得到原始图像,从而实现整个全息记录和重现过程的计算机模拟.二维图像重现于球面实际上了产生三维显示,因此上述方法在从计算全息图重现三维图像方面起到重要的作用.     

基于MEMS技术的柔性多触点深部脑刺激电极研制

深部脑刺激可以有效治疗帕金森病、癫痫、抑郁等疾病。深部脑刺激电极是深部脑刺激系统中的重要组成部分,传统的四触点电极由于通道少,触点面积大,分辨率低,容易刺激不必要的区域从而引起副作用。为提高深部脑刺激的分辨率和精度,设计了一种具有24 个触点的深部脑刺激电极,并利用微机电系统制作技术制作出柔性电极。该柔性电极基底材料为生物相容性良好的聚一氯对二甲苯（Parylene C）,导电材料为金。电极触点和焊点均为285 m1 500 m,连接焊点和触点的连接线宽为50 m 。初步电学测试表明,电极具有良好的低阻抗电学性能。使用多触点电极可减小触点尺寸,提高刺激的分辨率,改善脑刺激电极在临床中的治疗效果。     

Evolution of the AgCdO Contact Material Surface Microstructure with the Number of Arcs

This paper describes a study of the evolution of the AgCdO contact material surface microstructure as a function of the number of electrical arcs imposed on the switching surface. Five power switching devices were tested under different conditions. They were subjected to, respectively, 1, 2, 3, 10, and 100 electrical arcs under the same operating conditions: supply current of 400 A, circuit voltage of 28 V direct current (DC), and resistive load. For the analysis, a binocular microscope and a scanning electron microscope with an energy-dispersive x-ray spectrometer were used.     

In vivo measurement of 3-D skeletal kinematics from sequences ofbiplane radiographs: Application to knee kinematics

Current noninvasive or minimally invasive methods for evaluating in vivo knee kinematics are inadequate for accurate determination of dynamic joint function due to limited accuracy and/or insufficient sampling rates. A three-dimensional (3-D) model-based method is presented to estimate skeletal motion of the knee from high-speed sequences of biplane radiographs. The method implicitly assumes that geometrical features cannot be detected reliably and an exact segmentation of bone edges is not always feasible. An existing biplane radiograph system was simulated as two separate single-plane radiograph systems. Position and orientation of the underlying bone was determined for each single-plane view by generating projections through a 3-D volumetric model (from computed tomography), and producing an image (digitally reconstructed radiograph) similar (based on texture information and rough edges of bone) to the two-dimensional radiographs. The absolute 3-D pose was determined using known imaging geometry of the biplane radiograph system and a 3-D line intersection method. Results were compared to data of known accuracy, obtained from a previously established bone-implanted marker method. Difference of controlled in vitro tests was on the order of 0.5 mm for translation and 1.4 degrees for rotation. A biplane radiograph sequence of a canine hindlimb during treadmill walking was used for in vivo testing, with differences on the order of 0.8 mm for translation and 2.5 degrees for rotation.     

Extension of the 3-D range migration algorithm to cylindrical andspherical scanning geometries

A near field three-dimensional (3-D) synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) algorithm specially tailored for cylindrical and spherical scanning geometries is presented. An imaging system with 3-D capability can be implemented by using a stepped-frequency radar which synthesizes a two-dimensional (2-D) aperture. Typical scanning geometries commonly used are planar, cylindrical, and spherical. The 3-D range migration algorithm (RMA) can be readily used with a planar scanning geometry. This algorithm is extremely accurate, preserves the phase, and corrects for the wavefront curvature. The RMA cannot be directly applied with nonplanar scanning geometries. However, as an alternative solution, we propose to backpropagate the backscattered data onto a planar aperture in the vicinity of the measurement aperture and then apply the 3-D RMA. The proposed imaging algorithm is validated both numerically and experimentally     

Transient Characteristics of the Reset Programming of a Phase-Change Line Cell and the Effect of the Reset Parameters on the Obtained State

In this paper, we investigate the effect of the reset-pulse parameters of a phase-change memory line cell on the electrical cell properties. By means of electrothermal finite-element simulations and measurements, the characteristics of the reset state (resistance after switching, threshold voltage, and stability of the state) are related to the physical parameters during reset switching (the temporal and spatial distribution of the temperature during switching, the evolution of the melting and molten phases, and the time that the line is molten). From a device point of view, we emphasize the following aspects: 1) Due to good thermal isolation, the line cell can be reset using a 5-ns short current pulse of limited amplitude; 2) longer pulsewidths allow lower reset current amplitudes due to the gradual heating of surrounding dielectric; 3) the reset resistance has no direct relation with the threshold voltage but is strongly related to the number of reset pulses applied to the cell; and 4) shorter pulsewidths allow extended endurance lifetimes.     

Analytical and experimental investigation on the magnetic field and torque of a permanent magnet spherical actuator

This paper presents the torque model of a ball-joint-like three-degree-of-freedom (3-DOF) permanent magnet (PM) spherical actuator. This actuator features a ball-shaped rotor with multiple PM poles and a spherical stator with circumferential air-core coils. An analytical expression of the magnetic field of the rotor is obtained based on Laplace's equation. Based on this expression and properties of air-core stator coils, Lorentz force law is employed for the study of the relationship between the rotor torque and coil input currents. By using linear superposition, the expression of the actuator torque in terms of current input to the stator coils can be obtained in a matrix form. The linear expression of the actuator torque will facilitate real-time motion control of the actuator as a servo system. Experimental works are carried out to measure the actual magnetic field distribution of the PM rotor in three-dimensional (3-D) space as well as to measure the actual 3-D motor torque generated by the actuator coils. The measurement results were coincident with analytical study on the rotor magnetic field distribution and actuator torque expressions. The linearity and superposition of the actuator torque were also verified through the experiments.     

Electrical characteristics of three-dimensional SOI/CMOS IC's

Seven-stage ring oscillators fabricated in the three-dimensional (3-D) structure by using laser recrystallization with a cross scan method have a propagation delay of 430 ps per stage at 5 V. Uniform operating characteristics and high-speed performance are observed for chips covering a significant portion of 4-in-diam SOI films, indicating a great possibility of 3-D IC's for future VLSI's. It has been found that the electrical characterisitics of devices fabricated in the underlying bulk silicon are not degraded by the recrystallization of the silicon layer directly above.     

电阻场板LDMOS表面电场解析模型及优化设计

提出具有电阻场板(Resistive field plate,RFP)硅基LDMOS表面电场和击穿电压解析模型。基于求解二维Poisson方程,此模型给出了二维表面电场和电势与器件结构参数和漏偏压关系的解析表达式;计算漂移区长度与击穿电压的关系,提出了一种优化高压器件的有效方法。解析结果与用MEDICI模拟的数值结果吻合较好,验证了模型的准确性,该模型可用于体硅RFPLDMOS的设计优化。     

DRM1,DRM2参与拟南芥愈伤组织的形成

通过体视显微镜、半薄切片、扫描电子显微镜观察拟南芥DNA从头甲基化酶DRM1,DRM2的双突变体drm1/drm2在愈伤诱导培养基上所诱导的愈伤组织,结果发现:与野生型相比,其种子和根、叶、叶柄等外植体,均具有在同等条件下愈伤组织增多,分裂旺盛的表型。编码拟南芥DNA从头甲基化酶DRM1,DRM2的基因DRM1,DRM2的表达水平也与生长素、细胞分裂素等外源激素浓度相关,由此推测外源激素浓度影响DRM1,DRM2的表达。暗示了DRM1,DRM2可能参与了拟南芥愈伤组织形成过程。     

Influence of contact geometry and current on effective erosion ofCu-Cr, Ag-WC, and Ag-Cr vacuum contact materials

Effective ac erosion rates were measured for Cu-Cr, Ag-WC, and Ag-Cr butt-type contacts in vacuum contactors, using half-cycle current pulses of 450-600 A rms. The polarity was changed for each operation to ensure uniform effects for both contacts. The contacts parted during the rising current, with the full gap set to 10-30% of the contact diameter. The effective linear volume erosion rate [cm³/C] was determined by measuring the axial erosion of the contacts versus the number of operations. This was converted to an effective mass erosion rate [μg/C], which was significantly smaller than the reported absolute cathode erosion rate based on measured loss of cathode mass with long square current pulses at large fixed gap. The effective erosion rate increased when spiral-slotted contacts were used. The dependence of the effective erosion rate on the gap was studied, and also the distribution of metal droplets on the arc shield. Most of the droplet flux from the gap was close to the plane of the cathode, while a large fraction of the ionized vapor from the cathode spots was deposited onto the anode. The droplets were a significant fraction of the cathode material loss and the overall effective erosion     

3维曲面振镜激光加工FPLSCM算法实践

为了高质量地将目标图像标刻在任意曲面上, 需要将计算机中排版的2维数据转换为3维数据从而形成具体振镜加工轨迹数据。在大量激光标刻实验测量与计算的基础上, 采用一种对任意自由曲面进行最小化失真展开的区域重点最小二乘共形展开(FPLSCM)算法, 完成了实用的3维振镜激光加工系统软件设计, 并进行了理论分析和实验验证, 取得了大量标刻测量数据。结果表明, 在z轴上下300mm范围内, 本算法能有效将由于高度与待加工表面形状差异带来的标刻畸变控制在1%左右, 并且在各类3维曲面上都得到了很好的加工效果。此研究成功实现了在自由3维曲面上利用动态聚焦技术完成各种表面加工的工作, 并通过优化算法有效减少了畸变。     

Influence of different SiC surface treatments performed prior to Ni ohmic contacts formation

This work is dealing with the influence of surface treatment on ohmic contacts to hexagonal N-type SiC with medium doping level. The contact materials were Ni and Ni₂Si. The structures had to be annealed at high temperatures in order to reach ohmic behavior. A number of surface treatment methods were tested: wet cleaning, plasma etching, intentional oxidation with etching, H₂ annealing and their combinations. After some types of cleaning, the SiC surface was immediately analysed using the XPS method. The results of the analyses showed that the composition of the surface was not much influenced by these treatments. At lower annealing temperatures (approx. up to 850 °C) the prepared contacts showed Schottky behavior with large scatter of parameters. After annealing at approx. 960 °C, where the onset of ohmic behavior is expected, the structures were truly ohmic and of good parameters. Cleaning methods had just a negligible influence on the electrical parameters of the ohmic contacts. An explanation for these observed facts is suggested: Although - already on the basis of the XPS results - we could speak about a negligible influence of the cleaning onto the contact parameters, there might come across also other mechanisms coming from interaction of contact materials with SiC, which caused similar behavior of ohmic contacts on differently treated surfaces.