Precipitation of Secondary Carbides in M2 High-Speed Steel Modified with Titanium diboride

The precipitation of the secondary carbides in high-speed steel of AISI M2 type modified with titanium diboride has been investigated for both the cast and the heat-treated states. The primary focus was on the effect of austenitizing temperatures on the secondary carbide precipitation during tempering. Some differences in origin of the secondary carbides, as well as in their shape and size distribution, were found in the tempered microstructure for the different austenitizing temperatures. After austenitization at 1180 °C and triple tempering at 560 °C, the secondary carbide particles of a spherical shape up to 200 nm in size were identified by selected area electron diffraction as M₂₃C₆. After austenitization at 1220 °C, two types of the secondary carbides were found in the tempered microstructure, M₂₃C₆ with a size up to 200 nm and M₆C with a size up to 400 nm. In both the cases, the carbide particles were slightly angular. After austenitization at 1260 °C, only M₆C secondary carbides were revealed in the tempered microstructure, which occurred as the angular particles up to 350 nm in size. In addition, considerably finer M₂₃C₆ carbide particles with a size of 10-40 nm were found to precipitate in the tempered microstructure.     

Relative Dimensional Change Evaluation of Vacuum Heat-Treated JIS SKD61 Hot-Work Tool Steels

JIS SKD61 hot-work steel is usually used as precision mold material for die casting; hence, it demands a higher level of dimensional stability during the hardening process, especially for fairly large sections. This study investigates the microstructural evolution and measures the relative dimensional changes in various tempering states. The results show that the retained austenitic contents of all quenched and tempered SKD61 steel specimens were less than 2%. When the tempering temperature reached 500 °C, the retained austenitic content decreased from 1.35 to 0.45%. TEM investigations revealed that a large number of secondary carbides, molybdenum-rich M₂C and vanadium-rich MC carbides, precipitated near the dislocations when the tempering temperature reached 525 °C. A secondary hardening phenomenon and evident expansion phenomenon occurred as the tempering temperature exceeded 500 °C. These phenomena were mainly contributed by the precipitation of secondary carbides in hot-work steels. The reason is that only 0.9% of the retained austenite transformed into martensite as the tempering temperature reached 500 °C, allowing the hardness and dimensional change to be neglected.     

Investigation of the Microstructural Changes and Hardness Variations of Sub-Zero Treated Cr-V Ledeburitic Tool Steel Due to the Tempering Treatment

The microstructure and tempering response of Cr-V ledeburitic steel Vanadis 6 subjected to sub-zero treatment at ??196 °C for 4 h have been examined with reference to the same steel after conventional heat treatment. The obtained experimental results infer that sub-zero treatment significantly reduces the retained austenite amount, makes an overall refinement of microstructure, and induces a significant increase in the number and population density of small globular carbides with a size 100-500 nm. At low tempering temperatures, the transient M₃C-carbides precipitated, whereas their number was enhanced by sub-zero treatment. The presence of chromium-based M₇C₃ precipitates was evidenced after tempering at the temperature of normal secondary hardening; this phase was detected along with the M₃C. Tempering above 470 °C converts almost all the retained austenite in conventionally quenched specimens while the transformation of retained austenite is rather accelerated in sub-zero treated material. As a result of tempering, a decrease in the population density of small globular carbides was recorded; however, the number of these particles retained much higher in sub-zero treated steel. Elevated hardness of sub-zero treated steel can be referred to more completed martensitic transformation and enhanced number of small globular carbides; this state is retained up to a tempering temperature of around 500 °C in certain extent. Correspondingly, lower as-tempered hardness of sub-zero treated steel tempered above 500 °C is referred to much lower contribution of the transformation of retained austenite, and to an expectedly lower amount of precipitated alloy carbides.     

Alloy carbide precipitation in tempered 2.25 Cr–Mo steel under high magnetic field

The influence of a high magnetic field on carbide precipitation during the tempering of a 2.25 Cr–Mo steel was investigated by means of transmission electron microscopy. As-quenched specimens were tempered at 200, 550 and 700 °C for various times in the absence and presence of a 12 T magnetic field. Experimental results indicate that the applied high magnetic field effectively promotes the precipitation of M₂₃C₆ carbides at low temperature (200 °C) and M₇C₃ and M₂₃C₆ carbides at intermediate temperature (550 °C). The increased Fe content in the M₂₃C₆ and M₇C₃ carbide significantly increases the magnetization. The magnetic Gibbs free energy, which influenced the alloy carbide precipitation behavior, was considered to be mainly determined by the intrinsic magnetization energy for M₂₃C₆ and M₇C₃ carbides. With the increase of the tempering temperature (700 °C), there was no pronounced effect of the high magnetic field on the precipitation sequence and the concentration of substitutional solute atoms in paramagnetic carbides. The investigation of alloy carbide precipitation under high magnetic fields could contribute to a better understanding of phase transformation of alloy carbides and to the heat treatment and fabrication of heat-resistant steels.     

Complete model for effects of silicon in 5%Cr hot work tool steels

Abstract

Recent modifications in chemical composition have been applied commercially to high alloy tool steels to improve toughness and tempering resistance. A common point in all compositions is the reduction of silicon content from the 1·0% used in AISI H11 and H13 down to 0·3% or lower levels. The present work investigates in detail the effect of silicon on tempering sequence and alloy carbide formation, proposing an explanation for the mechanical properties. Laboratory heats with silicon contents between 0·05 and 2·0% were cast and forged under industrial conditions. Mechanical tests were based on impact toughness and hardness measurements, after hardening from 1020°C and tempering at temperatures between 400 and 650°C. Secondary carbides were evaluated through transmission electron microscopy, mainly on extraction replicas, and matrix features were observed in thin foils. High resolution scanning electron microscopy was also applied, especially on fracture surface samples, to correlate toughness results with secondary carbide distributions. The effect of Si on cementite formation was found to be the major factor for the differences observed for the mechanical properties. During the initial tempering stages, cementite formation is delayed or inhibited in high Si steels, anticipating alloy carbide formation with preferred M₇C₃ precipitation on high energy interfaces. After longer tempering, M₇C₃ particles coarsen and may act as preferential cracking routes, explaining the lower toughness of high Si steels. In low Si steels, cementite is stabilised by Cr, Mo and V in solid solution, delaying alloy carbide precipitation and thus increasing tempering resistance.     

Kinetic Parameters of Secondary Carbide Precipitation in High-Cr White Iron Alloyed by Mn-Ni-Mo-V Complex

This study presents kinetics of precipitation of secondary carbides in 14.55%Cr-Mn-Ni-Mo-V white cast iron during the destabilization heat treatment. The as-cast iron was heat treated at temperatures in the range of 800-1100 °C with soaking up to 6 h. Investigation was carried out by optical and electron microscopy, dilatometric analysis, Ms temperature measurement, and bulk hardness evaluation. TTT-curve of precipitation process of secondary carbides (M₇C₃, M₂₃C₆, M₃C₂) has been constructed in this study. It was determined that the precipitation occurs at the maximum rate at 950 °C where the process is started after 10 s and completed within 160 min further. The precipitation leads to significant increase of Ms temperature and bulk hardness; large soaking times at destabilization temperatures cause coarsening of secondary carbides and decrease in particles number, followed by decrease in hardness. The results obtained are discussed in terms of solubility of carbon in the austenite and diffusion activation of Cr atoms. The precipitation was found to consist of two stages with activation energies of 196.5 kJ/g-mole at the first stage and 47.1 kJ/g-mole at the second stage.     

Effect of Tempering and Strain on Decomposition of Metastable Austenite in X210CrW12 Thixo-Cast Steel

Thixoforming of hot rolled X210CrW12tool steel led to the formation of globular austenitic grains (82.4 vol.%) surrounded by eutectic mixture (α-Fe and M₇C₃ carbides). The thixo-cast steel reached compression strength 4.8 GPa at plastic strain 34%. The analysis of pole figures after deformation indicated distinct texturization of microstructure in comparison with undeformed steel. Main texture components for austenite were {101}, 〈010〉, while ferrite did not reveal clearly formed orientation. DSC analysis confirmed that austenitic structure in the X210CrW12 steel was metastable and temperature of decomposition depended on the strain applied at 634 °C for the un-deformed sample and at 599 °C for sample compressed up to 4.8 GPa. Discontinuous transformation of austenite into perlite, that started mainly at grain boundaries and proceeded to the center, was the predominant mechanism responsible for the decomposition of globular grains in thixoformed X210CrW12 steel. The decomposition caused by tempering of supersaturated and severely strained steel led to obtaining characteristic product of transformation of higher hardness in comparison with only tempered sample. In the deformed sample the reaction started on slip bands and twins which revealed high density of defects, promoting precipitation of carbides, followed by local depletion in carbon as a result of α′- Fe formation. In contrast to non-deformed state they covered the area of grains. Two fronts of reaction α-Fe plate +M₃C → mixture of α-Fe and M₇C₃ carbides were also observed.     

Effect of single and double austenitization treatments on the microstructure and mechanical properties of 16Cr-2Ni steel

Double austenitization (DA) treatment is found to yield the best combination of strength and toughness in both low-temperature as well as high-temperature tempered conditions as compared to single austenitization (SA) treatments. Obtaining the advantages of double austenitization (DA) to permit dissolution of alloy carbides without significant grain coarsening was attempted in AISI 431 type martensitic stainless steel. Structure-property correlation after low-temperature tempering (200 °C) as well as high-temperature double tempering (650+600 °C) was carried out for three austenitization treatments through SA at 1000 °C, SA at 1070 °C, and DA at 1070+1000 °C. While the increase in strength after DA treatment and low-temperature tempering at 200 °C is due to the increased amount of carbon in solution as a result of dissolution of alloy carbides during first austenitization, the increased toughness is attributable to the increased quantity of retained austenite. After double tempering (650+600 °C), strength and toughness are mainly found to depend on the precipitation and distribution of carbides in the microstructure and the grain size effect.     

PHASE AND STRUCTURE TRANSFORMATION OF BAINITE IN 3Cr3Mo3VNb STEEL DURING TEMPERING

本文研究了3Cr3Mo3VNb钢等温淬火后贝氏体回火时的相及组织转变规律。实验结果表明,贝氏体的二次硬化机制和马氏体一样,主要是由Mo_2C,V_4C_3,NbC等细小弥散的合金碳化物析出造成的。回火时,贝氏体中粗大的渗碳体溶解较慢,减慢了合金碳化物的析出速率。贝氏体中的残余奥氏体分解和转变的行为与马氏体中的不同。贝氏体中位错密度较低,不利于合金碳化物的聚集粗化。以上诸因素的共同作用,使贝氏体具有比直接淬火所获得的马氏体更高的二次硬化效应、热强性和组织稳定性。     

Evolution of secondary-phase precipitates during annealing of the 12Kh18N9T steel irradiated with neutrons to a dose of 5 DPA

The formation and evolution of thermally-induced secondary precipitates in an austenitic stainless steel 12Kh18N9T irradiated in the core of a laboratory reactor VVR-K to a dose of 5 dpa and subjected to post-radiation isochronous annealings for 1 h in a temperature range from 450 to 1050°C have been studied using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and microhardness measurements. It has been shown that the formation of stitch (secondary) titanium carbides and M ₂₃C₆ carbides at grain and twin boundaries after annealing at 1050°C is preceded by a complex evolution of fineparticles of secondary phases (titanium carbides and nitrides) precipitated at dislocation loops and dislocations during annealing at temperatures above 750°C.     

The Microstructure Degradation of the IN 713C Nickel-Based Superalloy After the Stress Rupture Tests

The aim of the work was to examine the degradation phenomena taking place in the microstructure of the as-cast IN 713C superalloy after stress rupture tests, performed at T = 980 °C under a tensile stress of 150 MPa. A directional growth of γ′ phase (rafting) and decomposition of the NbC primary carbides accompanied by the precipitation of M₂₃C₆ secondary carbides rich in chromium and of γ′ phase were observed. It was also indicated that the decomposition of the NbC primary carbides may be accompanied by the precipitation of M₃B₂ borides rich in Mo.     

M5C2 carbide precipitates in a high-Cr martensitic steel

The precipitate phases in an advanced 11% Cr martensitic steel, expected to be used at 650 °C, have been investigated to understand the effect of precipitates on the creep-rupture strength of the steel. M₂₃C₆ and MX precipitates were dominant phases in this steel. Needle-like precipitates with a typical length of 180 nm and width of 20 nm; and metallic-element compositions of 53–74Fe, 16–26Cr, 3–18Ta, 2–8W, and 2–4Co (at%); were observed mainly within the martensite laths of the normalized-and-tempered steel. The needle-like precipitates have been identified as monoclinic carbide M₅C₂, which is not known to have been reported previously in high chromium steels, or in heat-resistant steels those have been normalized-and-tempered. This indicates that the formation of M₅C₂ carbides can occur in heat-resistant steels produced under appropriate tempering conditions, and that this does not require long-term isothermal aging or creep testing, in all cases.     

Decomposition of martensite by discontinuous-like precipitation reaction in an Fe–17Cr–0.5C alloy

The mechanism of martensite decomposition and the kinetics of carbide precipitation have been studied in an Fe–17 wt% Cr–0.55 wt% C alloy. The morphology of carbide precipitates formed within the decomposed regions and the crystallography of their formation were examined by means of transmission electron microscopy after tempering at 735°C for various times. The martensite decomposition starts within less than 10 s, but it is not completed even after 10 min. The reaction initiates with the nucleation of fine cementite particles preferentially at the prior austenite grain boundaries and occasionally at the martensite lath boundaries. Cementite particles are related to the ferritic matrix with the Bagaryatsky orientation relationship. The decomposition of martensite proceeds heterogeneously by the migration of a reaction front. Various carbide morphologies were observed in the region close to the reaction front: rod-like, spherical or lamellae. The kinetics of martensite decomposition changes from carbon diffusion controlled to chromium diffusion controlled. After long time tempering, the alloy carbides, M₂₃C₆ and M₇C₃, precipitate at the reaction front. The M₂₃C₆ carbides are related with respect to the ferrite by the Kurdjumov–Sachs orientation relationship. Two specific orientation relationships were found between the M₇C₃ carbide and the ferrite, which are related to each other by a rotation of 30° about their common axis of [0001]_h//[110]_α. One of them has previously been reported. The specific features of discontinuous-like precipitation in martensite are discussed and are attributed to the presence of carbon and chromium atoms, which have different mobilities. The driving forces for diffusion of carbon and chromium were qualitatively determined with the software and database ThermoCalc by assuming local equilibrium at the moving interfaces.     

Optimal heat treatment conditions and properties of bimetal (high Cr cast iron/alloyed steel) hammers

Abstract

This study intended to establish the optimal heat treatment conditions for the desired hardness and wear resistance property for the bimetal hammers developed by the authors. The objective of this study is to attain bimetal hammers that have a tough Cr–Ni alloyed steel shank and a high wear resistant high Cr cast iron head to replace conventional single alloy (high Mn steel) hammers. The results show that the optimal heat treatment condition obtained for the bimetal hammers is: destabilisation: 1000–1050°C for 2 h, quench: FAC and tempering: 480–500°C for 6 h. By employing this optimal heat treatment condition, the highest hardness value can be attained along with the best wear resistance property for the head portion and acceptable toughness for the shank portion. The microstructure of the head portion that corresponds to the optimal properties consists of eutectic M₇C₃ carbides, secondary M₇C₃ carbides, tempered martensite and almost nil retained austenite.     

Changes of Tempering Microstructure and Properties of Fe-Cr-V-Ni-Mn-C Cast Alloys

The changes of tempering microstructure and properties of Fe-Cr-V-Ni-Mn-C cast alloys with martensite matrix and much retained austenite are studied. The results showed that when tempering at 200℃ the amount of retained austenite in the alloys is so much that is nearly to as-cast, and a lot of retained austenite decomposes when tempering at 350℃ and the retained austenite decomposes almost until tempering at 560℃. When tempering at 600℃, the retained austenite in the alloys all decomposes. At 560℃ the hardness is highest due to secondary hardening. The effect of nickel and manganese on the microstructure and properties of Fe-Cr-V-C cast alloy were also studied. The results show that the Fe-Cr-V-C cast alloy added nickel and manganese can obtain martensite matrix and much retained austenite microstructure, and nickel can also prevent pearlite transformation. With the increasing content of nickel and manganese, the hardness of as-cast alloy will decreases gradually, so one can improve the hardness of alloy by tempering process. When the content of nickel and manganese is 1.3～1.7%, the hardness of secondary hardening is the highest (HRC64). But when the content of nickel and manganese increase continually, the hardness of secondary hardening is low slightly, and the tempering temperature of secondary hardening rises.     

Effect of Destabilization Heat Treatments on the Microstructure of High-Chromium Cast Iron: A Microscopy Examination Approach

A 18.22 wt.% Cr white iron has been subjected to various destabilization heat treatments. Destabilization at 800 °C caused gradual precipitation of M₂₃C₆ secondary carbide particles with time leading to a gradual increase in the bulk hardness. At 900, 1000, and 1100 °C, an initial sharp increase in bulk hardness with time occurred, reaching a plateau that was followed by a slightly decreasing trend. The combination of martensite formed, stoichiometry, and morphology of the secondary carbides present (mostly M₇C₃) are responsible for the obtained values of hardness. At 1100 °C, severe dissolution of the secondary carbides and consequent stabilization of the austenitic phase took place. Maximum hardness values were obtained for destabilization at 1000 °C. The correlation between bulk hardness and microstructural features was elaborated.     

Effects of Temperature on Microstructure and Wear of Salt Bath Nitrided 17-4PH Stainless Steel

Salt bath nitriding of 17-4 PH martensitic precipitation hardening stainless steels was conducted at 610, 630, and 650?°C for 2?h using a complex salt bath heat-treatment, and the properties of the nitrided surface were systematically evaluated. Experimental results revealed that the microstructure and phase constituents of the nitrided surface alloy are highly process condition dependent. When 17-4PH stainless steel was subjected to complex salt bathing nitriding, the main phase of the nitrided layer was expanded martensite (????), expanded austenite (??_N), CrN, Fe₄N, and (Fe,Cr) _x O _y . In the sample nitrided above 610?°C, the expanded martensite transformed into expanded austenite. But in the sample nitrided at 650?°C, the expanded austenite decomposed into ??_N and CrN. The decomposed ??_N then disassembled into CrN and alpha again. The nitrided layer depth thickened intensively with the increasing nitriding temperature. The activation energy of nitriding in this salt bath was 125?±?5?kJ/mol.     

Microstructure and properties of high chromium cast irons: effect of heat treatments and alloying additions

Abstract

Different combinations of critical and subcritical heat treatments variously modify the initial as cast microstructure of high chromium white cast irons leading to secondary carbide precipitation of different extent and nature. Destabilisation (critical heat treatment) of austenite at 970°C for 2·5 h followed by annealing (subcritical heat treatment) at 600°C for 13 h results in massive precipitation of M₂₃C₆ carbide particles along with spheroidised M₇C₃. The reversed order of heat treatments leads to extensive precipitation of M₇C₃ secondary carbide particles. Mo has a favouring effect on the hardness of the microstructures containing pearlite by limiting pearlite formation. The gradual increase in the alloying additions, C and Cr, increases the hardness of the materials at the different treatment states by inducing carbide precipitation. The increase in the Si content leads to the opposite effect by favouring pearlite formation.     

Microstructure evolution of an ultra-high strength metal alloy with tempering temperature

Optical microscopy (OM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used to investigate the effect of tempering temperature on the experimental extra-high carbon steels.It is found that tempering reaction can reduce austenite content and influence the stability of the austenite.As-normalized microstructure is a mixture of twinned martensite and retained austenite.Tempered at 250 ℃ for 2 h,lath martensite can occasionally be found nearby the diffusionally decomposed austenite arca.It also is found that tempering at 650 ℃ for 2 h,nanoparticles of carbides precipitate in the martensite and decomposed austenite.     

Microstructure evolution,fracture and hardening mechanisms of quenched and tempered steel for large sized bearing rings at elevated quenching temperatures

Based on 42CrMo steel, a steel with a higher C and Ni content is developed for use in large sized bearing rings. The impact energy and hardness of the quenched and tempered steel increase with the quenching temperature, but then decrease when the temperature is above 925 °C. When the temperature is below 925 °C, some larger M₂₃C₆-type carbides (with average diameters of 255.6 μm) exist in the quenched and tempered microstructure. The number of carbides is reduced as the quenching temperature increases. At the same time, the fracture modes change from microvoid coalescence and quasi-cleavage to microvoid coalescence. The number of round quasi-cleavage fractures, which are formed around the carbides, decrease as the number of carbides decrease. The existence of larger M₂₃C₆-type carbides leads to round quasi-cleavage fractures and decrease the impact energy. The precipitation strengthening of M₂₃C₆-type carbides increases the hardness at a quenching temperature of 925 °C.