Measurement of residual stress in thermal spray coatings by the incremental hole drilling method

The experimental measurement of residual stresses originating within thick coatings deposited by thermal spray processes onto solid substrates plays a fundamental role in the preliminary stages of coating design and process parameters optimization. The main objective of the present investigation was to determine the residual stresses by means of the incremental hole drilling method in order to perform the measurement of the stress field through the thickness of two different HVOF Nickel-based coatings. The holes through the coatings were carried out by means of a high velocity drilling machine (Restan). A finite element calculation procedure was used to identify the calibration coefficients necessary to evaluate the stress field. The Integral method was used for the analysis of non-uniform through-thickness stresses. The results for both coatings indicate that the nature of the residual stresses is tensile and their values are between 150-300 MPa.     

Residual stress development in cold sprayed Al,Cu and Ti coatings

Residual stresses play an important role in the formation and performance of thermal spray coatings. A curvature-based approach where the substrate–coating system deflection and temperature are monitored throughout the coating deposition process was used to determine residual stress formation during cold spray deposition of Al, Cu and Ti coatings. The effect of substrate material (carbon steel, stainless steel and aluminium) and substrate pre-treatment (normal grit blasting, grit blasting with the cold spray system and grinding for carbon steel substrate) were studied for all coating materials with optimized deposition parameters. Mainly compressive stresses were expected because of the nature of cold spraying, but also neutral as well as tensile stresses were formed for studied coatings. The magnitudes of the residual stresses were mainly dependent on the substrate/coating material combination, but the surface preparation was also found to have an effect on the final stress stage of the coating.     

The Sensitivity of Abradable Coating Residual Stresses to Varying Material Properties

This paper reports recent research on abradable materials employed for aero-engine applications. Such thermal spray coatings are used extensively within the gas turbine, applied to the inner surface of compressor and turbine shroud sections, coating the periphery of the blade rotation path. The function of an abradable seal is to wear preferentially when rotating blades come into contact with it, while minimizing over-tip clearance and improving the efficiency of the engine. Thermal spraying of an abradable coating onto a substrate imparts two components of residual stress; rapid quenching stresses as the spray material cools on impact and stresses arising from differential thermal contraction. In-service thermal stresses are superimposed by the differential expansion of these bonded layers. The combination of the production and operation history will lead to thermal-mechanical fatigue damage within the abradable coating. The present paper will describe the numerical modeling and sensitivity analysis of the thermal spray process. The sensitivity of residual stresses (with varying material properties, coating/substrate thickness, Poisson’s ratio, and substrate temperature) predicted by the Tsui and Clyne progressive deposition model enabled identification of performance drivers to coating integrity. Selecting material properties that minimize in-service stresses is a crucial stage in advancing future abradable performance.     

Cross-Sectional Residual Stresses in Thermal Spray Coatings Measured by Moiré Interferometry and Nanoindentation Technique

A plasma-sprayed thermal barrier coating (TBC) was deposited on a stainless steel substrate. The residual stresses were firstly measured by moiré interferometry combined with a cutting relaxation method. The fringe patterns in the cross-section of the specimen clearly demonstrate the deformation caused by the residual stress in thermal spray coatings. However, restricted by the sensitivity of moiré interferometry, there are few fringes in the top coat, and large errors may exist in evaluating the residual stress in the top coat. Then, the nanoindentation technique was used to estimate the residual stresses across the coating thickness. The stress/depth profile shows that the process-induced stresses after thermal spray are compressive in the top coat and a tendency to a more compressive state toward the interface. In addition, the stress gradient in the substrate is nonlinear, and tensile and compressive stresses appear simultaneously for self-equilibrium in the cross-section.     

Effects of coating thickness and residual stresses on the bond strength of ASTM C633-79 thermal spray coating test specimens

Wire-arc-sprayed nickel-aluminum is widely used in the aircraft industry for dimensional restoration of worn parts and as a bond coat for thermal barrier coatings and other top coats. Some repair applications require thick coatings, which often result in lower bond strength. A mechanism being investigated to ex-plain this decrease in bond strength is the free edge effect, which includes both coating residual stresses and coating thickness. The layer-removal method was used to determine experimentally the residual stresses in wire-arc-sprayed nickel-aluminum coatings of different thicknesses. Bond strength evalu-ations were performed using an improved ASTM C 633-79 test specimen. Finite-element analysis and fracture mechanics were used to investigate the effects of coating thickness and residual stress state on coating bond strength.     

The effect of residual stress in HVOF tungsten carbide coatings on the fatigue life in bending of thermal spray coated aluminum

One factor that affects the suitability of tungsten carbide (WC) coatings for wear and corrosion control applications is the fatigue life of the coated part. Coatings, whether anodized or thermal spray coated, can reduce the fatigue life of a part compared to an uncoated part. This study compares the fatigue life of uncoated and thermal spray coated 6061 Al specimens. The relation between the residual stress level in the coating and the fatigue life of the specimen is investigated. Cyclic bending tests were performed on flat, cantilever beam specimens. Applied loads placed the coating in tension. Residual stress levels for each of the coating types were determined experimentally using the modified layer removal method. Test results show that the fatigue life of WC coated specimens is directly related to the level of compressive residual stress in the coating. In some cases, the fatigue life can be increased by a factor of 35 by increasing the compressive residual stress in the coating.     

Thermal cycling resistance of modified thick thermal barrier coatings

The thermal cycling properties of several modified thick thermal barrier coatings (TTBC) were studied in three test series in which the maximum coating temperature was fixed to 1000, 1150 and 1300 °C. The modified coating structures were all segmentation-cracked coatings and some of these coatings were surface-sealed. The segmentation-cracked coatings were produced by laser glazing or by using appropriate plasma spray parameters. The sealing treatments were made by using aluminium phosphate or sol–gel-based sealant. In this paper, it was demonstrated that regardless of whether the segmentation-cracked TTBCs were made by using specific plasma spray parameters or by laser glazing, the strain tolerance of the coating improved significantly. Instead, both sealing treatments reduced the thermal cycling resistance of the TTBCs to some degree, especially in the case of aluminium phosphate sealing. Coating microstructures, their mechanical and elastic properties and residual stresses were taken into consideration when estimating the thermal cycling properties and failure modes of the coatings.     

Residual Stresses in Thermal Spray Coatings and Their Effect on Interfacial Adhesion: A Review of Recent Work

An overview is presented of the development of residual stresses in thermal spray coatings and their ef-fects on interfacial debonding. The main experimental techniques for measurement of residual stresse are briefly described, with particular attention given to the method of continuous curvature monitoring. Boundary conditions satisfied by all residual stress distributions are identified and expressions derived for the curvatures and stress distributions arising from a uniform misfit strain between coating and sub-strate.It is noted that stress distributions in thick coatings rarely correspond to the imposition of such a uniform misfit strain, so that recourse to numerical methods becomes essential for quantitative predic-tion of stress distributions. Relationships are presented between residual stresses and corresponding strain energy release rates during interfacial debonding. The effect on this of superimposing stresses from an externally applied load is outlined. The initiation of debonding is then considered, covering edge effects and other geometrical considerations. Finally, some specific case histories are briefly outlined to illustrate how the various theoretical concepts involved relate to industrial practice.     

可计及温度与层状结构影响的超高温陶瓷基复合材料涂层残余热应力理论表征模型

目的创建可计及温度与层状结构共同影响的超高温陶瓷基复合材料涂层与基体层因热不匹配导致的残余热应力的理论表征模型。方法基于经典的层合板理论与超高温陶瓷基复合材料热物理性能参数对温度的敏感性研究,引入温度和层状结构对涂层与基体层所受残余热应力的影响,形成各层残余热应力温度相关性的理论表征方法,并以ZrB_2-SiC复合材料涂层为例,利用该理论方法系统地研究了各种控制机制对残余热应力的影响及其随温度的演化规律。结果超高温陶瓷基复合材料涂层与基体层所受的残余热应力随着温度的变化而变化,涂层热膨胀系数与基体层热膨胀系数差别越大,变化幅度越大。当涂层材料热膨胀系数大于基体层材料热膨胀系数时,涂层材料遭受残余拉应力,基体层材料遭受残余压应力;随着涂层厚度的增加,涂层所受拉应力减小,而基体层所受压应力增大;当涂层材料热膨胀系数小于基体层材料热膨胀系数时,涂层材料遭受残余压应力,基体层材料遭受残余拉应力;随着涂层厚度的增加,涂层所受压应力减小,而基体层所受拉应力增大。低温下,各层所受残余热应力对层厚与每层材料组成的变化比较敏感,随着温度的升高,敏感性降低。结论对于涂层材料,应设计涂层材料的热膨胀系数小于基体层材料的热膨胀系数,使涂层遭受残余压应力,这不仅能够降低材料表面产生裂纹的危险,同时可以抑制表面已有缺陷的扩展。同时应当设计相对较小的涂层厚度,以增大涂层所受的残余压应力,降低基体层所受的残余拉应力,有效提高整体材料在不同温度下的强度性能。     

Through-thickness determination of phase composition and residual stresses in thermal barrier coatings using high-energy X-rays

High-energy X-rays were used to determine the local phase composition and residual stresses through the thickness of as-sprayed and heat-treated plasma-sprayed thermal barrier coatings consisting of a NiCoCrAlY bond coat and an yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) topcoat produced with through-thickness segmentation cracks. The as-sprayed residual stresses reflected the combined influence of quenching stresses from the plasma spray process, thermal expansion mismatch between the topcoat, bond coat and substrate, and stress relief from the segmentation cracks. Heat treatments led to the formation of a thermally grown oxide (TGO) which was in compression in the plane, as well as relief of quenching stresses and development of a stress gradient in the YSZ topcoat. The high-energy X-ray technique used in this study revealed the effects that TGO and segmentation cracks have on the in-plane stress state of the entire coating.     

Characterization and residual stresses of WC-Co thermally sprayed coatings

The present investigation has been conducted in order to determine the residual stresses of an as-ground WC-12Co coating of two different thicknesses, by means of two different methods. Firstly, X-ray diffraction techniques, which allowed the determination of the surface residual stresses of the coating by means of the method called “sin²ψ” method. Secondly, an incremental hole drilling technique together with the integral method, which allowed the analysis of the non-uniform through-thickness residual stresses present in the coatings. It has been determined that the surface residual stresses are of a compressive nature, which could be due to the grinding that was applied to the coatings in order to achieve the desired thicknesses. On the contrary, the results of the incremental hole drilling tests indicated that the through-thickness residual stress distributions are not uniform and are characterized by the presence of tensile peak stresses, at depths in the range of ~ 50-125 μm. Such stresses were observed to decrease towards the coating-substrate interface where the compressive component of the stress state becomes greater than the tensile component. It has been found that the mean residual von Mises stress is higher in the thinner coating than in the thicker one, of approximately 180 and 107 MPa, respectively.     

Correlation between residual stress and abrasive wear of WC–17Co coatings

This investigation had been conducted to determine the influence of residual stresses on the abrasive wear resistance of HVOF thermal spray WC–17 wt.% Co coatings, as well as to derive stress relaxation after cutting by wire electric discharge machining (EDM). The abrasive wear properties of the coatings were characterised using an ASTM-G65 three body abrasive wear machine with silica sand as the abrasive. The residual stress was measured by means of X-ray diffraction techniques, on the coated samples before and after the abrasive wear tests. Compressive residual stresses were observed in the surface layer of the large coated samples. However, stress relaxation results after cutting into small sizes were distinctly different. There was strong correlation between residual stresses in the surface layer and abrasive wear resistance, as well as yield strength of a material.     

A cantilever beam method for evaluating Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of thermal spray coatings

Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio for thermal spray coatings are needed to evaluate properties and characteristics of thermal spray coatings such as residual stresses, fracture toughness, and fatigue crack growth rates. It is difficult to evaluate Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of thermal spray coatings be-cause coatings are usually thin and attached to a thicker and much stiffer substrate. Under loading, the substrate restricts the coating from deforming. Since coatings are used while bonded to a substrate, it is desirable to have a procedure to evaluate Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio in situ. The cantilever beam method to evaluate the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of thermal spray coat-ings is presented. The method uses strain gages located on the coating and substrate surfaces. A series of increasing loads is applied to the end of the cantilever beam. The moment at the gaged section is calcu-lated. Using a laminated plate bending theory, the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio are inferred based on a least squares fit of the equilibrium equations. The method is verified by comparing predicted values of Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio with reference values from a three-dimensional finite ele-ment analysis of the thermal spray coated cantilever beam. The sensitivity of the method is examined with respect to the accuracy of measured quantities such as strain gage readings, specimen dimensions, ap-plied bending moment, and substrate mechanical properties. The method is applied to evaluate the Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio of four thermal spray coatings of industrial importance.     

Thermal Spray Coatings on Orthopedic Devices: When and How the FDA Reviews Your Coatings

Thermal spray coatings have been commonly applied on medical devices for various reasons, e.g., surface roughening, biological fixation, and similarity of chemical composition to bone minerals. Generally, to introduce a thermal spray-coated device to the US market, a premarket review of the coated device is necessary by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This article aims to improve understanding regarding FDA review of thermal spray coatings in orthopedic medical device marketing applications and expectations for information to be submitted as part of this process. While different thermal spray technologies and materials have been used for coatings on medical devices, thermal spray coatings often seen by the FDA on orthopedic devices include plasma-sprayed titanium (Ti) coatings and hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings as well as Ti/HA dual coatings. The coated devices are mostly metals (e.g., Ti alloy, cobalt-chromium alloy, stainless steel alloys) and some polymers (e.g., polyetheretherketone). The FDA does not clear or approve individual coatings or materials; rather, coatings and materials are evaluated as part of the final, finished medical device in the context of the specific device technological characteristics and intended use. The FDA has two current guidance documents for orthopedic implants with modified metallic surfaces and hydroxyapatite coatings, which outline the FDA’s recommendations for full characterization and testing of these two types of coatings, respectively. Additionally, the standards organizations (e.g., ISO and ASTM) have developed many materials and testing standards for these coatings, some of which are recognized by the FDA. It is helpful that the coating companies reference these standards for appropriate material/coating specifications, testing methods, and acceptance criteria. Depending on the intended use of the coated device, it is important that coating properties also address some items specific to that device type. Additionally, the impact of cleaning, sterilization, and packaging/shelf-life processes on the coating properties is also considered to ensure that the coated device is safe for its intended use.     

Modeling Residual Stress Development in Thermal Spray Coatings: Current Status and Way Forward

An overview of analytical and numerical methods for prediction of residual stresses in thermal spray coatings is presented. The various sources and mechanisms underlying residual stress development in thermal spray coatings are discussed, then the various difficulties associated with experimental residual stress measurement in thermal spray coatings are highlighted. The various analytical and numerical models used for prediction of residual stresses in thermal spray coatings are thoroughly discussed. While analytical models for prediction of postdeposition thermal mismatch stresses are fully developed, analytical quenching and peening stress models still require extensive development. Various schemes for prediction of residual stresses using the finite element method are identified. The results of the various numerical and analytical models are critically analyzed, and their accuracy and validity, when compared with experiments, are discussed. Issues regarding the accuracy and applicability of the models for predicting residual stresses in thermal spray coatings are highlighted, and several suggestions for future development of the models are given.     

Microstructure and fatigue behavior of cold spray coated Al5052

The effect of cold spray coating in inducing residual stresses in the substrate and its effect on delaying crack initiation under cyclic loading have been studied on Al5052 alloy specimens. Different sets of Al5052 specimens have been coated with pure Al and Al7075 feedstock powder, using a low-pressure cold spray coating technique. Some sets of specimens were grit blasted (GB) before coating. The microstructural evolution of the substrate after coating and the fatigue behavior of the coated structure have been studied. In order to obtain the fatigue S–N diagram for each set, as-received and coated specimens with and without preceding GB treatment have been tested in a load-controlled condition. X-ray diffraction has been used to measure the residual stresses both in the deposited materials and the substrates. The results are discussed to highlight the effect of this emerging surface treatment on the characteristics of the treated material. Compressive residual stresses, which led to appreciable increase in the fatigue life, have been observed in all the coated sets. The results indicate that the fatigue strength was significantly improved up to 30% in the case of Al7075 coatings. The results show a strong dependency of the fatigue strength on the deposited material and the spray parameters.     

Methods and application of residual stress analysis on thermally sprayed coatings and layer composites

Coating and layer composite manufacturing most commonly involves high temperature gradients and intensive heat transfer between the different composite materials. This can be noticed not only for thermal spraying, but also for other coating techniques. The combination of temperature gradients and materials with different thermophysical properties leads to the formation of thermal stresses in the composite, which are superimposed by stress generating effects during coating solidification, phase transformation or recrystallization. The final state of residual stresses affects the structural and functional properties of the coating as well as the component reliability during operation. Therefore, residual stress analysis is an important tool for the optimization of coatings and layer composite manufacturing processes in order to ensure stability of the processes, adhesion and compatibility of the coating, and finally, the reliability of the components in various technical systems.The most common residual stress measurement techniques are described and compared, with the focus on the incremental hole drilling and milling method. The advantages and disadvantages of the methods are discussed with respect to their application on industrial machine parts. The typical application fields for the different methods are given with respect to the specific measurement principles. The incremental hole drilling method is presented in more detail with application examples that illustrate the suitability of this method for the optimization of thermal spraying processes in industrial layer composite manufacturing by managing the heat and mass transfer in a most appropriate way.     

ZrO2/NiCoCrAIY功能梯度涂层残余应力分析

采用有限元方法研究了等离子ZrO2/NiCoCrAlY功能梯度涂层形成过程中的热力学行为以及残余应力的分布.结果表明,由于涂层与基体的热膨胀系数不匹配等原因,在界面等区域存在严重的应力集中.涂层与基体厚度比、中间层以及喷涂过程的冷却速率对残余应力水平有很大影响.涂层内部关键区域的残余应力水平,随着涂层厚度增加而增加;50%ZrO2+50%NiCoCrAlY中间层对降低涂层内部的应力水平是有利的,但并不能消除涂层内部的应力集中;对于瞬态分析而言,涂层内部的应力随着冷却速度的增加而增加.     

Implementation and development of the incremental hole drilling method for the measurement of residual stress in thermal spray coatings

The experimental measurement of residual stresses originating within thick coatings deposited by thermal spray on solid substrates plays a role of fundamental relevance in the preliminary stages of coating design and process parameters optimization. The hole-drilling method is a versatile and widely used technique for the experimental determination of residual stress in the most superficial layers of a solid body. The consolidated procedure, however, can only be implemented for metallic bulk materials or for homogeneous, linear elastic, and isotropic materials. The main objective of the present investigation was to adapt the experimental method to the measurement of stress fields built up in ceramic coatings/metallic bonding layers structures manufactured by plasma spray deposition. A finite element calculation procedure was implemented to identify the calibration coefficients necessary to take into account the elastic modulus discontinuities that characterize the layered structure through its thickness. Experimental adjustments were then proposed to overcome problems related to the low thermal conductivity of the coatings. The number of calculation steps and experimental drilling steps were finally optimized.     

Residual stresses as a factor in the selection of tungsten carbide coatings for a jet engine application

Tungsten carbide thermal spray coatings are important to the aerospace industry for the mitigation of midspan damper wear on jet engine fan and compressor blades. However, in some cases the coating can fail due to spallation and cracking, and in other situations the fatigue life of a fan or compressor blade is reduced when a coating is applied. Coating failures can result in decreased engine performance and costly maintenance time. A comprehensive experimental research program was conducted to evaluate coating crack resistance in bending, low-cycle fatigue properties of the coating and substrate, coating performance in jet engine tests, and microstructures for a wide range of coating compositions and application processes. Coating residual stress distributions also were evaluated. Eleven coatings were ranked according to their performance relative to the other coatings in each evaluation category. Results from the bend and low-cycle fatigue evaluations were compared to the experimentally evaluated residual stresses. Comparisons of rankings indicate a strong correlation between performance and the residual stresses in the coatings. Results from the program were used to select a suitable coating system for final in-service use based on two important criteria: (1) the coating must not fail while in service, and (2) the coating must not induce crack propagation into the substrate of the midspan damper.