Terminal ballistic effect on the crack growth assessment of a helicopter rotor drive

An experimental impact test of a 7.62 NATO projectile perforating a helicopter tail rotor shaft is briefly presented. With the aim to reproduce the operational worst case, the damage occurs during the flight, the impacted specimen is subsequently tested with a multiaxial testing machine. This procedure allows the evaluation of the capability of the shaft to withstand a recovery mission, which is simulated by applying a torsional fatigue spectrum to the shaft. The nucleation and propagation of fatigue cracks have been monitored during the test.Finite element analyses have been carried out to simulate both impact and crack propagation. The state of stress is multiaxial: it is induced by torque, residual stress field and shape of the damage. Mixed mode propagation has hence been considered by means of an equivalent SIF. Numerical results are in agreement with experimental data.     

A wave propagation model for the high velocity impact response of a composite sandwich panel

A solution methodology to predict the residual velocity of a hemispherical-nose cylindrical projectile impacting a composite sandwich panel at high velocity is presented. The term high velocity impact is used to describe impact scenarios where the projectile perforates the panel and exits with a residual velocity. The solution is derived from a wave propagation model involving deformation and failure of facesheets, through-thickness propagation of shock waves in the core, and through-thickness core shear failure. Equations of motion for the projectile and effective masses of the facesheets and core as the shock waves travel through sandwich panel are derived using Lagrangian mechanics. The analytical approach is mechanistic involving no detail account of progressive damage due to delamination and debonding but changes in the load-bearing resistance of the sandwich panel due to failure and complete loss of resistance from the facesheets and core during projectile penetration. The predicted transient deflection and velocity of the projectile and sandwich panel compared fairly well with results from finite element analysis. Analytical predictions of the projectile residual velocities were also found to be in good agreement with experimental data.     

Numerical analysis of oblique impact on reinforced concrete

This study proposes a simple but efficient methodology based on the equivalent inclusion method and finite element analysis. Oblique impacting is considered to investigate the residual velocity and ricochet limit of an ogive-nose steel projectile with various impact velocities against a reinforced concrete slab. The computational results are compatible with Tate’s formula for the ricochet limit as a function of the impact velocity. The proposed methodology is useful for designing defense structures, and the ricochet limit is one of the important parameters that govern the performance of a weapon system. The methodology can be further developing for designing the protection of military structures and nuclear power plants against high velocity projectiles.     

42CrMo曲轴钢喷丸强化有限元模拟

喷丸强化能够有效提高42CrMo曲轴钢的抗疲劳性能,且喷丸数值模拟是制定喷丸工艺方案、评估喷丸后工件表面疲劳抗力的主要理论工具。为了体现喷丸过程中的随机性,利用MATLAB软件提供的Rand随机函数产生弹丸的位置,建立随机喷丸模型,并在此模型基础上研究弹丸直径、弹丸材料、冲击速度以及覆盖率与残余应力间的分布规律,进一步讨论喷丸工艺对42CrMo曲轴钢表面粗糙度的影响。研究发现:随着弹丸直径以及速度的增大,残余应力增大,抗疲劳性能提高,但粗糙度也相应增大;随着覆盖率的增大,残余应力增大,表面残余应力分布更加均匀,稳定性提高;同时弹丸强度越高,残余应力越大。通过喷丸试验对随机多弹丸模型进行验证,为喷丸工艺的精确控制提供了科学依据和理论基础。     

A new analytical model to simulate impact onto ceramic/composite armors

A very simple one-dimensional and fully analytical model of ballistic impact against ceramic/composite armors is presented in this paper. The analytical model has been checked both with ballistic tests and numerical simulations giving predictions in good agreement with them. The model allows the calculation of residual velocity, residual mass, and the projectile velocity and the deflection or the strain histories of the backup material. These variables are important in describing the phenomenological process of penetration. Described are modifications to previous work of impact into ceramics combined with a new composites model. The development of this composite model is based on studies of the impact in yarns, fabrics and finally composites.     

Kevlar织物软壁包容环抗冲击数值仿真分析研究

针对机匣包容性问题,提出Kevlar平纹织物本构模型的拟合方法,分别采用单层壳、多层壳、层合壳三种有限元建模方式对Kevlar织物软壁包容环弹道冲击过程进行模拟,发展了机匣包容性仿真分析模型。结果表明,多层壳模型和层合壳模型的计算结果更准确,并且可以通过调节摩擦因子使仿真结果与试验结果更接近。在此基础上研究了撞击点位置和弹体入射姿态对弹体剩余速度的影响。结果表明:在较小偏移距离内,撞击点的位置对剩余速度的影响可以忽略不计;滚转角和俯仰角对剩余速度影响较小,而对于偏航角,当角度大于30°时,剩余速度会随着角度的增大明显呈下降趋势,且弹体出射姿态也会发生明显变化。     

Influence of conical projectile diameter on perpendicular impact of thin steel plate

A numerical study of conical projectiles for perpendicular impact on a thin steel plate is reported. The target material considered, Weldox 460 E steel, is frequently used for this kind of application and several results of experiments are available in the international literature to verify numerical simulations. The Johnson-Cook constitutive relation coupled with the Johnson-Cook failure criterion have been applied to analyse penetration of the target and also the failure process. The analysis has been focussed on the influence of the projectile diameter on the perforation process, assuming the same projectile mass. The aim was to preserve the same initial kinetic energy and identical nose angle. The goal is to estimate the ballistic limit, the residual velocity, the plastic work, and the temperature levels produced during the penetration process. The analysis has shown a linear increase of the ballistic limit with the projectile diameter.     

Finite element calculation of 4-step 3-dimensional braided composite under ballistic perforation

The ballistic perforation test results of 4-step 3-dimensional (3D) braided Twaron^®/epoxy composites, which were subjected to impact by conically cylindrical steel projectile, are presented. The residual velocities of projectile perforated composites target at various strike velocities were measured and also compared with that from finite element calculation. ‘Fiber inclination model’ for 3D textile composites was adopted to decompose the 3D braided composite at quasi-microstructure level for the geometrical modeling in preprocessor of FEM. The material modeling was also based on this simplified model. The finite element code of Ls-Dyna was used to simulate the impact interaction between projectile and inclined lamina. The residual velocity of projectile perforating the entire 3D braided composite can be calculated from the sum of kinetic energy loss of the projectile that obtained from FEM. From the simulation of ballistic penetration process and comparison between numerical results and experimental results, it proves that the analysis scheme of quasi-microstructure level in this paper is valid and reasonable. The simplified method in this paper could be extended to model other kinds of 3D textile composites under ballistic impact.     

Analytical modelling of high velocity impacts of cylindrical projectiles on carbon/epoxy laminates

In this work an analytical model has been developed in order to predict the residual velocity of a cylindrical steel projectile, after impacting into a woven carbon/epoxy thin laminate. The model is based in an energy balance, in which the kinetic projectile energy is absorbed by the laminate through three different mechanisms: linear momentum transfer, fiber failure and laminate crushing. This last mechanism needs the quantification of the through-thickness compressive strength, which has been evaluated by means of quasi-static punch tests. Finally, high velocity impact tests have been accomplished in a wide range of velocities, to validate the model.     

Impact damage tolerance of laminated composite helicopter blades

The paper is concerned with the study of the damage resistance of laminated composite helicopter blades subjected to impact loading. Dynamic stress intensity factors are determined for composite laminate and separate layers using combined theoretical and experimental approach. The effect of the projectile size on the damage tolerance of composite blade is investigated and tolerable sizes of the defects are estimated.     

机动飞行时直升机尾传动轴的横向振动建模与特性

提出了直升机空间机动飞行及尾传动轴运动位姿的一种描述方法,建立了相关坐标系。基于扩展哈密顿原理,建立了直升机空间机动飞行下尾斜轴横向弯曲振动的动力学模型,并利用伽辽金法将偏微分方程转化为常微分方程。水平传动轴可以当作尾斜轴的一种特例,通过一坐标变换矩阵即可将尾斜轴的动力学方程变换为水平传动轴的动力学方程。分析了直升机空间机动飞行对尾传动轴横向弯曲振动特性的影响。结果表明：直升机的机动飞行会对尾传动轴的横向弯曲振动产生附加的刚度效应、阻尼效应和激励效应,使得传动轴轨迹中心的位置和运动轨道的大小发生改变。     

Deformation and fracture of a long-rod projectile induced by an oblique moving plate: Experimental tests

The influence of projectile length to diameter ratio (15, 30 and 45), plate thickness (0.5, 1 and 2 projectile diameters), projectile velocity (1500, 2000 and 2500 m/s) and plate velocity (−300 to 300 m/s) on the interaction between long-rod tungsten projectiles and oblique steel plates (obliquity 60°) was studied experimentally in small-scale reverse impact tests. The residual projectiles and their motions were characterised in terms of changes in length, velocity, angular momentum, linear momentum and kinetic energy. The parameters found to have the largest influence on the disturbance of the projectile were the plate velocity, in particular its direction, and the thickness of the plate. In the ranges studied, the influence of length to diameter ratio and of projectile velocity were found to be less important.     

三维编织复合材料弹道侵彻准细观层次有限元计算

三维编织复合材料相比于层合复合材料有较高的层间剪切强度和断裂韧性,因而具有更高的冲击损伤容限。用钢芯弹对三维编织复合材料作弹道贯穿测试,得到弹体的入射速度和剩余速度,并考察侵彻破坏模式。目前对三维编织复合材料弹道侵彻性能计算主要建立在连续介质假设上,从真实细观结构计算三维编织复合材料弹道冲击性能尚有一定难度,用三维结构复合材料的纤维倾斜模型在准细观结构层次上分解三维编织复合材料,就其中的一块倾斜单向板作弹道侵彻有限元计算,由弹体动能损失得到贯穿整个复合材料靶体后弹体的剩余速度。有限元计算及与弹道测试结果的比较证明在准细观层次上计算三维编织复合材料弹道冲击性能的有效性。      

The effect of hybridization on the GFRP behavior under high velocity impact

In the present study, experimental and analytical investigations for the behavior of E-glass fiber reinforced composite hybridized with a layer of Kevlar 29 fiber, under high velocity impact, were performed. The experimental work includes the placement of the Kevlar layer at four different locations to verify the effects of the stacking sequence on the impact behavior. Three different projectile geometries, namely, flat-ended, hemispherical and conical were used. The experimental results reveal that hybridization improves the laminates performance under dynamic penetration. The results also indicate that the laminates response was found to be highly sensitive to the projectile geometry. In the case of analytical modeling, two energy models were conducted to calculate the projectile residual velocities. The results obtained from the two models were compared with those obtained experimentally and some conclusions were drawn.     

Oblique penetration of a rigid projectile into an elastic-plastic target

The main objective of the present work is to develop an approximate solution of the problem of oblique penetration of a rigid projectile into an elastic-plastic target of finite thickness. This is accomplished by generalizing the work on normal penetration reported in [1]. Here, an irrotational isochoric velocity field is considered that consists of three parts, each of which together satisfy the condition of impenetrability at the projectile's surface. The first part is associated with the longitudinal motion of the projectile, the second part with the transverse motion, and the third part with the projectile rotation in the plane defined by the initial longitudinal projectile velocity and the normal to the target surface. The target material is assumed to be incompressible and the target region is subdivided into an elastic region ahead of the projectile, and a rigid-plastic region near the projectile. Using the above potential velocity field, inertia effects are included and the linear momentum equation is solved exactly in the elastic region. In the plastic region, the linear momentum equation is integrated numerically along the instantaneous streamlines to determine the pressure field on the projectile surface. Then the decelerating force and moment applied to the projectile are solved numerically. The model developed here predicts the residual velocity, the ballistic limit, as well as the residual angle of obliquity. Moreover, this model is able to describe the phenomenon of ricochet. It is shown that the agreement of the theory with experiments is good even though no adjustable parameters are used. Also, a user-friendly computer program has been developed that is available for distribution along with a Users' Manual.     

Depth of penetration of high-speed penetrator with including the effect of mass abrasion

Mass abrasion is observed on the nose of projectile when a projectile strikes concrete target at high velocity. To evaluate the influence of the mass abrasion on the depth of penetration (DOP) limit, the relationship between the nose factor of the residual projectile after abrasion and the initial impact velocity is suggested according to the experimental data. Based on the dynamic cavity expansion theory, with considering the effects of varying nose factor and mass of projectile, a modified model is proposed to calculate the depth of penetration of kinetic energy penetrator. The model predicts that a theoretical maximum DOP exists due to the mass abrasion of the projectile. The model is checked by the different experimental data.     

A model of cumulative fatigue strengthening effect due to coaxing

In this paper, a fatigue experiment of auto drive shaft smooth specimen is studied in details. Through the analysis of load amplitude and load cycles, which influenced on the residual fatigue strength of structure, we find a mathematical model of strengthening effect due to coaxing. Based on the auto drive shaft work load spectrum, a cumulative fatigue strengthening model is suggested. Then, a new method of lightweight design that can maximise cumulative strengthening effect is proposed. Our model and method can provide a theoretical basis for lightweight design on structural parts of automobiles.     

粗骨料种类对刚性弹贯穿混凝土靶剩余速度的影响

针对弹体贯穿混凝土靶问题,混凝土细观尺度模型能够反映混凝土中各介质对混凝土力学行为的影响。本研究编写了三维随机球形粗骨料的生成和投放程序,并采用一种基于背景网格的材料识别技术建立了含有水泥砂浆和粗骨料两种网格的三维混凝土细观有限元模型,同时将界面过渡区简化为这两种网格之间的一种可失效的接触。基于这一模型,运用连续有限元软件对刚性弹贯穿混凝土过程进行了数值仿真,并分析了三个不同种类的粗骨料对剩余速度的影响。结果表明,粗骨料的强度和密度分别在较低和较高的着靶速度下对剩余速度有一定影响。     

高速冲击载荷作用下钎焊蜂窝夹层板动态响应

目的 以钎焊高温合金蜂窝夹层板为研究对象,分析其在弹丸高速冲击作用下的力学性能。方法 采用轻气炮冲击加载试验结合有限元模拟,对蜂窝夹层板开展不同冲击强度下的动态响应和失效研究。开展含高速冲击损伤的蜂窝夹层板侧压试验,研究损伤模式对剩余强度的影响。结果 冲击强度对夹层板的失效过程和失效模式有着明显的影响,当冲击条件不足以使得迎弹面发生侵彻时,夹层板失效为表面压痕损伤;随着冲击强度的提高,出现不同程度的局部芯层压缩;当冲击强度大于临界值时,迎/背弹面陆续被侵彻,夹层板出现侵入损伤及贯穿损伤。结论 高速冲击损伤使得蜂窝夹层板的侧压失效模式,由理想塑性屈曲转变为局部失稳,侧压极限载荷大幅降低。     

刚性尖头弹扩孔贯穿金属靶板理论模型的讨论

针对延性扩孔破坏模式,讨论了刚性尖头弹贯穿韧性金属靶板的已有六个理论模型（F-W、C-L、JZG、WHM、S-W和JBL）对于靶板厚度和弹头形状的适用范围,统一了各模型参数的选取准则,分别给出了JZG模型尖锥头形和尖卵头形弹体半锥角和无量纲曲率半径（CRH）的适用范围。基于12组冲击速度为200~1600m/s,厚径比（靶体厚度与弹身直径之比H/d）为0.605~9.17的多种弹靶材料的穿甲实验,得出：对于尖锥头形弹体贯穿靶板后的残余速度,S-W和WHM、JZG、F-W模型分别对于较薄靶板、中等厚度靶板和较厚靶板的预测效果较好;而对于尖卵头形弹体,WHM和JBL模型预测效果较好。同时,各模型对于弹道极限预测效果的结论和残余速度一致。分析结论可为坦克、舰船等单、多层金属装甲防护结构设计与计算提供参考和依据。