Drift in Type K Bare-Wire Thermocouples from Different Manufacturers

Base-metal thermocouples play a significant role in industrial measurements, and among the many varieties and formats, bare-wire Type K is often preferred. The reason for this preference is its low cost, durability and tolerance of high temperature. Unfortunately, Type K, like all base-metal thermocouples, is made based on a temperature-to-emf relationship and not on a specific metallurgical formulation. The original Hoskins Chromel/Alumel couple was simple in composition, and it had known thermal drift characteristics associated with reversible crystallographic changes and irreversible oxidation, and these two drift mechanisms led to large instabilities in use. To improve the stability of Type K, most modern manufacturers now adopt compositions with alterations that can depart significantly from those of the original formulation. These alterations are usually made to improve the stability and/or manufacturing processing of their wire. So, although the wire is made to meet the limits of error and tables, this is only true at the time of manufacture. As soon as the wire is exposed to temperatures above \(150~{^{\circ }}\hbox {C}\), the supplier-dependent alloys can exhibit a wide range of drift behaviors that depend on composition and even the batch of the wire. This study investigates the change in Seebeck coefficient as a function of temperature for Type K bare-wires from different suppliers by using a linear-gradient furnace and a high-resolution homogeneity scanner. Wires were exposed to temperatures over the range \({\sim }20~{^{\circ }}\hbox {C}\) to \(950~{^{\circ }}\hbox {C}\) for time periods between 24 h and 500 h. The results show that most wires have very different drift behaviors, which the end user could not realistically predict or correct.     

A Critical Look at Type T Thermocouples in Low-Temperature Measurement Applications

Type T thermocouples are commonly used in industrial measurement applications due to their accuracy relative to other thermocouple types, low cost, and the ready availability of measurement equipment. Type T thermocouples are very effective when used in differential measurements, as there is no cold junction compensation necessary for the connections to the measurement equipment. Type T’s published accuracy specifications result in its frequent use in low-temperature applications. An examination of over 250 samples from a number of manufacturers has been completed for this investigation. Samples were compared to a standard platinum resistance thermometer (SPRT) at the LN2 boiling point along with four other standardized measurement points using a characterized ice point reference, low-thermal EMF scanner, and an 8.5 digit multimeter, and the data were compiled and analyzed. The test points were approximately ?196 °C, ?75 °C, 0 °C, + 100 °C, and + 200 °C. These data show an anomaly in the conformance to the reference functions where the reference functions meet at zero. Additionally, in the temperature region between ?100 °C and ?200 °C, a positive offset of up to 5.4 °C exists between the reference function equations published in the United States in ASTM E230-06 for the nitrogen point and the measured response of the actual wire. This paper also examines the historical and technological reasons for this anomaly in the US reference function. The study concludes that Type T thermocouples typically do not conform to the ASTM E230-06 published reference function describing their performance when used to measure temperature in the range of ?100 °C to ?200 °C.     

Thermocouples with Built-In Self-testing

The aim of this paper is to create a method of built-in self-testing of thermocouples in situ. This aim is achieved by using the equivalent operating time of the thermocouple. The method does not require replacement of thermocouples from their operating place as it could be done during the operation of the thermocouples. The only necessary condition, that makes self-testing possible, is a constant measuring junction temperature during the procedure of self-testing. The determined equivalent operating time allows finding the place of a given thermocouple in the thermocouple’s drift model as well as in the model of thermoelectric inhomogeneity.     

Material Problems in Using High-Temperature Thermocouples

The material compatibility and thermal stability of ceramic-composite coatings of different oxide ceramics deposited on alumina tubes to prevent the reduction of the alumina were investigated in the high-temperature range between 1750 °C and 1850 °C. It turned out that the coatings were thermally unstable and did not provide adequate protection against the reduction of the alumina tubes. The oxide ceramics formed eutectic compositions with low melting temperatures and were also prone to reduction to elementary metals by carbon. A new type of high-temperature thermocouple on the basis of refractory and noble metals was tested in the temperature range between 1325 °C and 1800 °C. Two metal-sheathed prototypes were constructed. The thermoelectric behavior of the tungsten5%rhenium/iridium thermocouples (W5%Re/Ir) was investigated by different high-temperature exposures, and the thermoelectric stability was checked by repeated measurements at the ice point.     

钨铼热电偶在空气中的热电动势稳定性及其特性研究

为了解决钨铼热电偶在实际使用中遇到的问题，本文探讨了钨铼热电偶在空气中的高温稳定性规律。研究结果发现：钨铼热电偶由于某一极完全氧化而导致材料性质发生了质变，从而引发了与之相应的热电性质的根本改变；首次揭示出钨铼热电偶两极的稳定性在不同温度下是不同的；发现了钨铼热电偶的体电阻与热电势具有同时突变的特性，从而，可以通过测量电阻变化对其寿命进行预报。本项研究结果为钨铼热电偶的生产及合理使用提供了理论依据。     

Thermoelectric Stability of Graphite-Based Thermocouples

This paper describes the design of newly developed graphite-based thermocouples and the results of investigation of their thermoelectric stability up to temperatures of about 1950 °C in graphite-containing atmospheres. All investigated combinations of different graphite grades revealed considerable thermoelectric drifts above approximately 1600 °C. With the most promising combination of isostatically pressed carbon and glassy carbon as the sensitive elements, drift rates of less than 0.1 K·h^?1 could be achieved in use at 1500 °C. This allows at least short-term use of the graphite-based thermocouples at specific applications where metallic thermocouples cannot be reliably used.     

Fixed-Point Thermocouples in Power Plants: Long-Term Operational Experiences

For more than four years, commercially available fixed-point thermocouples have measured hot-steam temperatures in power plants. A periodic self-adjustment procedure should keep their total measuring uncertainty within 1 K. This paper gives a short introduction to the measuring system components and their function. Despite heavy mechanical and thermal loads, the sensing elements show high reliability and appropriate availability. To evaluate the long-term reproducibility of the method, single thermometers have been dismantled and recalibrated in the laboratory at different time intervals. After more than 35 000 h of hard routine service the results have confirmed the expected uncertainty level.     

Evaluating Uncertainties in Interpolations Between Calibration Data for Thermocouples

Two methods for evaluating thermocouple calibration uncertainty over the temperature range of the calibration are presented, when the thermocouple is calibrated at only a few temperatures. The evaluation of the uncertainty at fixed-point temperatures is well established, but it is often not clear how the uncertainty arising from interpolation between fixed points can be determined. We present a conventional method, based on that described in the “Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement” (GUM), and a numerically-based Monte Carlo method, for quantifying the calibration uncertainty arising from the use of an interpolating polynomial defined by calibration data. The two methods are compared and found to be in excellent agreement, but the Monte Carlo method is, in general, more flexible, e.g., when measurements are described by non-normal distributions.     

Thermal Recovery from Cold-Working in Type K Bare-Wire Thermocouples

Cold-working of most thermocouples has a significant, direct impact on the Seebeck coefficient which can lead to regions of thermoelectric inhomogeneity and accelerated drift. Cold-working can occur during the wire swaging process, when winding the wire onto a bobbin, or during handling by the end user—either accidentally or deliberately. Swaging-induced cold-work in thermocouples, if uniformly applied, may result in a high level of homogeneity. However, on exposure to elevated temperatures, the subsequent recovery process from the cold-working can then result in significant drift, and this can in turn lead to erroneous temperature measurements, often in excess of the specified manufacturer tolerances. Several studies have investigated the effects of cold-work in Type K thermocouples usually by bending, or swaging. However, the amount of cold-work applied to the thermocouple is often difficult to quantify, as the mechanisms for applying the strains are typically nonlinear when applied in this fashion. A repeatable level of cold-working is applied to the different wires using a tensional loading apparatus to apply a known yield displacement to the thermoelements. The effects of thermal recovery from cold-working can then be accurately quantified as a function of temperature, using a linear gradient furnace and a high-resolution homogeneity scanner. Variation in these effects due to differing alloy compositions in Type K wire is also explored, which is obtained by sourcing wire from a selection of manufacturers. The information gathered in this way will inform users of Type K thermocouples about the potential consequences of varying levels of cold-working and its impact on the Seebeck coefficient at a range of temperatures between \(\sim 70\,^\circ \)C and \(600\,^\circ \)C. This study will also guide users on the temperatures required to rapidly alleviate the effects of cold-working using thermal annealing treatments.     

Assessment of Temperature Measurements Using Thermocouples at NIS-Egypt

Thermocouples are increasingly used in industry and research. For many industrial heating processes, particularly those carried out at high temperatures, a thermocouple is the most convenient and simple instrument for temperature measurement. In some instances, it is the only feasible method. The aim of this study is to select and recommend the best thermocouples from both base and noble metals to users in industrial and scientific institutions. Different types of thermocouples and calibration methods are described. From this work, the Nicrosil–Nisil thermocouple has been proposed as the best base metal thermocouple and the Au/Pt thermocouple is the most recommended as a substandard up to 1,000 °C.     

铂铑-铂热电偶稳定的探讨

本文对铂铑-铂热电偶的稳定性提出了新的看法,在高温梯度场内（如银熔点）的保温处理,将使热电偶更趋于稳定,并使其进入最终的稳定状态。     

铂-钯热电偶的均匀性及稳定性实验

本文着重描述了对一种新型热电偶———铂 -钯热电偶的主要热电性能即均匀性与稳定性的研究。其结果此热电偶的不均匀性不大于 10mK ,在 96 0℃下放置 2 30小时漂移不大于 71mK。     

Improving High-Temperature Measurements in Nuclear Reactors with Mo/Nb Thermocouples

Many irradiation experiments performed in research reactors are used to assess the effects of nuclear radiations on material or fuel sample properties, and are therefore a crucial stage in most qualification and innovation studies regarding nuclear technologies. However, monitoring these experiments requires accurate and reliable instrumentation. Among all measurement systems implemented in irradiation devices, temperature—and more particularly high-temperature (above 1000°C)—is a major parameter for future experiments related, for example, to the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) Program or the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) Project. In this context, the French Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique (CEA) develops and qualifies innovative in-pile instrumentation for its irradiation experiments in current and future research reactors. Logically, a significant part of these research and development programs concerns the improvement of in-pile high-temperature measurements. This article describes the development and qualification of innovative high-temperature thermocouples specifically designed for in-pile applications. This key study has been achieved with technical contributions from the Thermocoax Company. This new kind of thermocouple is based on molybdenum and niobium thermoelements, which remain nearly unchanged by thermal neutron flux even under harsh nuclear environments, whereas typical high-temperature thermocouples such as Type C or Type S are altered by significant drifts caused by material transmutations under the same conditions. This improvement has a significant impact on the temperature measurement capabilities for future irradiation experiments. Details of the successive stages of this development are given, including the results of prototype qualification tests and the manufacturing process.     

铂-钯热电偶的短期重复性研究

本文描述了新型热电偶即铂-钯热电偶的研制过程.着重考察了其在锌、铝、银、铜凝固点上的短期重复性,其值为4mK～17mK.     

热电偶补偿导线的校准方法

热电偶用补偿导线指在一定温度范围内(包括常温)具有与所配的热电偶的热电动势的标称值相同的一对带有绝缘层的导线,用它们连接热电偶与测量装置,以补偿它们与热电偶连接处的温度变化所产生的误差。所以热电偶补偿导线的准确性直接影响到与热电偶整体测温的准确。