Literacy and Cognitive Functioning in Bilingual and Nonbilingual Children at or Not at Risk for Reading Disabilities.

The authors determined whether the cognitive processes that underlie second-language acquisition difficulties are the same as those that underlie reading difficulties. First-grade (N = 101) bilingual and nonbilingual children were administered a battery of measures in Spanish and English. English word identification and vocabulary were predicted by a language-general working-memory (WM) factor, whereas English pseudoword reading was predicted by Spanish pseudoword reading and WM. The results also showed that (a) children proficient in language were better able to access resources from WM and (b) children with reading disabilities (RD) performed poorly on Spanish measures of short-term memory. In general, second-language difficulties are related to accessing a language-independent WM system, whereas language-specific phonological memory deficits underlie RD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early Development of Neurophysiological Processes Involved in Normal Reading and Reading Disability: A Magnetic Source Imaging Study.

This longitudinal study examined the development of the brain mechanism involved in phonological decoding in beginning readers using magnetic source imaging. Kindergarten students were assigned to 2 groups: those who showed mastery of skills that are important predictors of proficient reading (low-risk group) and those who initially did not show mastery but later benefited from systematic reading instruction and developed average-range reading skills at the end of Grade 1 (high-risk responders). Spatiotemporal profiles of brain activity were obtained during performance of letter-sound and pseudoword naming tasks before and after Grade 1 instruction. With few exceptions, low-risk children showed early development of brain activation profiles that are typical of older skilled readers. Provided that temporoparietal and visual association areas were recruited into the brain mechanism that supported reading, the majority of high-risk responder children benefited from systematic reading instruction and developed adequate reading abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Isolation of a cytokinin gene, ZOG1, encoding zeatin O-glucosyltransferase from Phaseolus lunatus

University students who were skilled or less-skilled readers were compared on tests of auditory information processing and immediate serial recall of auditory and visual digits. Reading skill was defined by performance on a pseudoword reading task. The good readers exhibited typical modality effects with higher recall of auditory than visual items from the last 3 serial positions. On the terminal list item, the less-skilled readers showed a modality effect comparable with that of the skilled readers, but on other list items the modality effect reversed and a visual superiority was obtained. Results were discussed in terms of C. G. Penney's (1989) separate-streams model of short-term verbal memory.     

Unusual modality effects in less-skilled readers.

University students who were skilled or less-skilled readers were compared on tests of auditory information processing and immediate serial recall of auditory and visual digits. Reading skill was defined by performance on a pseudoword reading task. The good readers exhibited typical modality effects with higher recall of auditory than visual items from the last 3 serial positions. On the terminal list item, the less-skilled readers showed a modality effect comparable with that of the skilled readers, but on other list items the modality effect reversed and a visual superiority was obtained. Results were discussed in terms of C. G. Penney's (1989) separate-streams model of short-term verbal memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of reading purpose and working memory capacity on the processing of expository text.

The extent to which low- and high-WMC (working memory capacity) readers adjust cognitive processes to fit the reading purpose was examined. Participants performed a verbal protocol task as they read an expository text under 1 of 2 reading purpose conditions, entertainment or study, and then completed a free-recall task. When reading to study, low-WMC readers emphasized less demanding processes over more demanding processes to a greater extent than high-WMC readers and recalled less. When reading for entertainment, patterns of processes and recall were similar across readers. Thus, all readers adjusted processing to fit the reading purpose; however, when reading for study, low-WMC readers emphasized processes that were the least demanding on their resources but not necessarily beneficial for recall. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Decoding and comprehension skills in Turkish and English: Effects of the regularity of grapheme-phoneme correspondences.

Assesses decoding and comprehension skills for Turkish and American 1st and 3rd graders. 20 Ss in each group were tested on a pseudoword vocalization task and on a paragraph comprehension task. Latency and accuracy data indexed decoding proficiency and percentage correct comprehension skill. Turkish Ss were faster and more accurate on the decoding task than Americans at the 1st-grade level and equally accurate but faster at the 3rd-grade level. In 1st but not 3rd grade, Turkish Ss were superior to Americans on the comprehension task. Significant relationships between decoding and comprehension were found for all but American 3rd graders. Data suggest that languages with more regular letter–sound correspondences lead to faster acquisition of decoding skills. Findings also support a decreased relationship between decoding and comprehension once learners are beyond initial reading. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal study of phonological processing skills in children learning to read in a second language.

English-speaking children (N?=?122) in French immersion classes participated in a 1-year longitudinal study of the relation between phonological awareness and reading achievement in both languages. Participants were administered measures of word decoding and of phonological awareness in French and in English as well as measures of cognitive ability, speeded naming, and pseudoword repetition in English only. The relation of phonological awareness in French to reading achievement in each of the languages was equivalent to that in English. These relations remained significant after partialing out the influences of speeded naming and pseudoword repetition. Phonological awareness in both languages was specifically associated with 1-year increments in decoding skill in French. These findings support the transfer of phonological awareness skills across alphabetic languages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aberrant spatiotemporal activation profiles associated with math difficulties in children: A magnetic source imaging study.

The study investigates the relative degree and timing of cortical activation in parietal, temporal, and frontal regions during simple arithmetic tasks in children who experience math difficulties. Real-time brain activity was measured with magnetoencephalography during simple addition and numerosity judgments in students with math difficulties and average or above average reading skills (MD group, N = 14), students with below average scores on both math and basic reading tests (MD/RD group, N = 16) and students with above average scores on standardized math tests (control group, N = 25). Children with MD showed increased degree of neurophysiological activity in inferior and superior parietal regions in the right hemisphere compared to both controls and MD/RD students. Left hemisphere inferior parietal regions did not show the expected task-related changes and showed activity at a significant temporal delay. MD students also showed increased early engagement of prefrontal cortices. Taken together, these findings may indicate increased reliance on a network of right hemisphere parietal (and possibly frontal areas as well) for simple math calculations in students who experience math difficulties but perform within normal range in reading. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improvement in reading rate under independent and difficult text levels: Influences on word and comprehension skills.

Improving reading rate can be difficult for poor readers. In this experiment, we investigated the impact of improvement in reading rate on other aspects of reading, including word recognition, decoding, vocabulary, and comprehension. Poor readers in Grades 2 or 4 (N = 123) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions: practice reading text at their independent reading level (92%–100% word reading accuracy), practice reading text at a difficult reading level (80%–90% accuracy), or an untreated control. Students in practice conditions read aloud to an adult listener who assisted with difficult words. Before, midway, and following 20 weeks of treatment, we assessed improvement in reading rate, word recognition, decoding, vocabulary, and comprehension across conditions and determined the impact of improved rate on comprehension. We found significant differences favoring the treatment groups in rate, word recognition, and comprehension, but not in decoding or vocabulary. We found no significant differences in growth between levels of text difficulty. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Brain mechanisms for reading and language processing in spina bifida meningomyelocele: A combined magnetic source- and structural magnetic resonance imaging study.

Objective: The development of the ability to process spoken and written language depends upon a network of left hemisphere temporal, parietal, and frontal regions. The present study explored features of brain organization in children with spina bifida meningomyelocele (SBM) and shunted hydrocephalus, who commonly present with precocious development of word reading skills and preservation of vocabulary and grammar skills. Method: Eight children with SBM were compared with 15 IQ and reading-level matched, typically developing controls on MRI-based morphometric and Magnetic Source Imaging-derived neurophysiological profiles. Results: Children with SBM showed reduced magnetic activity in left inferior parietal regions during spoken word recognition and pseudoword reading tasks. We also noted reduced surface area/volume in inferior parietal and posterior temporal regions in SBM and increased gray matter volumes in left middle frontal regions and gyral complexity in left posterior temporal and inferior parietal regions. Conclusions: A complex pattern of changes in cortical morphology and activation may serve as evidence for structural and functional brain reorganization ensuring preservation of language and decoding abilities in children with SBM. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Functional MRI activation in children with and without dyslexia during pseudoword aural repeat and visual decode: Before and after treatment.

Children without dyslexia (n=10) received nonphonological treatment, and those with dyslexia received phonological (n=11) or nonphonological (n=9) treatment. Before and after treatment they performed aural repeat, visual decode, and aural match pseudoword tasks during functional MRI scanning that separated stimulus input from response production. Group map analysis indicated that children with dyslexia overactivated compared with good readers during the aural-repeat/aural-match contrast in bilateral frontal (Brodmann's area [BA] 3, 4, 5, 6, 9), left parietal (BA 2, 3), left temporal (BA 38), and right temporal (BA 20, 21, 37) regions (stimulus input) and underactivated in right frontal (BA 24, 32) and right insula (BA 48) regions (response production); they underactivated in BA 19/V5 during the visual-decode/aural-match contrast (response production). Individual brain analysis for children with dyslexia revealed that during the aural-repeat/aural-match contrast (stimulus input), phonological treatment decreased and normalized activation in left supramarginal gyrus and postcentral gyrus. Nonphonological treatment increased and normalized activation during the visual-decode/aural-match contrast (response production) in BA19/V5 and changed activation in the same direction as good readers during aural-repeat/aural-match contrast (stimulus input) in left postcentral gyrus. The significance of the findings for competing theories of dyslexia is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Eye movement efficiency in normal and reading disabled elementary school children: effects of varying luminance and wavelength

BACKGROUND: This investigation examines the question of whether decreasing wavelength of light and/or reducing luminance benefits oculomotor efficiency in normal and reading disabled (RD) children. METHODS: Two groups of children were identified as normal or disabled readers using standardized reading tests. After suitable practice, eye movements were objectively measured with the Visagraph II as each of the subjects silently read a series of three different selections at their independent reading level with clear (control), gray, and blue filters. Four variables were measured for each subject. Data were analyzed using a repeated measure ANOVA and post hoc tests. RESULTS: The standardized reading tests significantly differentiated average from poor readers using grade scores and percentiles. Initially, with clear filters, eye movement scores of normal readers were superior to disabled readers for fixations regressions, and rate of reading. Among the RDs--but not the normals--the three variables improved with the blue filter when compared with the clear filter, number of fixations and regressions were significantly lower, and rate was significantly higher. Gray filters yielded no significant changes. Improvement with the blue filters normalized the three variables in that there were no significant differences between normal and disabled readers. CONCLUSION: This investigation confirms a link between wavelength of light and eye movement efficiency in reading. Blue filters resulted in a significant improvement in the number of fixations and regressions and rate of reading in RD children. The outcome broadens the concept of transient system deficit established in previous research to include the effect on oculomotor efficiency. The educational implications of this study are of special interest to optometrists.     

Resilient readers? University students who are poor recoders but sometimes good text comprehenders.

The authors screened 194 university students to determine whether some could comprehend text well despite very poor recoding skills, measured by pseudoword reading. Most of the 17 poorest recoders had never been identified as reading disabled. We classified 6 poor recoders as "resilient readers" because their text comprehension scores were average or above, relative to the sample as a whole. They were indistinguishable from 6 matched typical readers on measures of text comprehension derived from oral-reading think-aloud protocols. There was no evidence that the resilient readers relied on superior verbal ability or working memory to compensate for poor recoding. The resilient readers were poor at spelling, reading isolated words, and reading text rapidly, but they showed adequate phonemic awareness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Altering the brain circuits for reading through intervention: A magnetic source imaging study.

Intervention-related changes in spatiotemporal profiles of regional brain activation were examined by whole-head magnetoencephalography in 15 children with severe reading difficulties who had failed to show adequate progress to quality reading instruction during Grade 1. Intensive intervention initially focused on phonological decoding skills (for 8 weeks) and, during the subsequent 8 weeks, on rapid word recognition ability. Clinically significant improvement in reading skills was noted in 8 children who showed "normalizing" changes in their spatiotemporal profiles of regional brain activity (increased duration of activity in the left temporoparietal region and a shift in the relative timing of activity in temporoparietal and inferior frontal regions). Seven children who demonstrated "compensatory" changes in brain activity (increased duration of activity in the right temporoparietal region and frontal areas, bilaterally) did not show adequate response to intervention. Nonimpaired readers did not show systematic changes in brain activity across visits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Becoming a Fluent Reader: Reading Skill and Prosodic Features in the Oral Reading of Young Readers.

Prosodic reading, or reading with expression, is considered one of the hallmarks of fluent reading. The major purpose of the study was to learn how reading prosody is related to decoding and reading comprehension skills. Suprasegmental features of oral reading were measured in 2nd- and 3rd-grade children (N = 123) and 24 adults. Reading comprehension and word decoding skills were assessed. Children with faster decoding speed made shorter and less variable intersentential pauses, shorter intrasentential pauses, larger sentence-final fundamental frequency (F?) declinations, and better matched the adult prosodic F? profile. Two structural equation models found evidence of a relationship between decoding speed and reading prosody as well as decoding speed and comprehension. There was only minimal evidence that prosodic reading was an important mediator of reading comprehension skill. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive processes as predictors of word recognition and reading comprehension in learning-disabled and skilled readers: Revisiting the specificity hypothesis.

Examines how cognitive processes interrelate as well as predict learning-disabled (LD) readers' word recognition and reading comprehension performance. Correlations between phonological, orthographic, semantic, metacognitive, and working memory measures with reading performance were examined in LD and skilled readers (aged 8–12 yrs). LD Ss were deficient on all cognitive processes compared with skilled Ss, but these differences do not reflect IQ scores. Reading ability group differences emerged on a component composed primarily of working memory measures (referred to as "g") as well as unique components, suggesting that these differences emerge on both general and specific (modular) processes. G best predicts reading comprehension for both groups, and phonological awareness best predicts skilled Ss' pseudoword reading, whereas g best predicts LD Ss' pseudoword performance. Overall, LD Ss' information processing difficulties were described within a general working memory model that views such children as having difficulty accessing and coordinating both general and specific processes. Results suggest that the cognitive processes that contribute to reading deficits are best understood in the context of their combination with other operations rather than in isolation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Antithrombin reduces ischemia/reperfusion injury of rat liver by increasing the hepatic level of prostacyclin

Reading disability (RD), or dyslexia, is a complex cognitive disorder manifested by difficulties in learning to read, in otherwise normal individuals. Individuals with RD manifest deficits in several reading and language skills. Previous research has suggested the existence of a quantitative-trait locus (QTL) for RD on the short arm of chromosome 6. In the present study, RD subjects' performance in several measures of word recognition and component skills of orthographic coding, phonological decoding, and phoneme awareness were individually subjected to QTL analysis, with a new sample of 126 sib pairs, by means of a multipoint mapping method and eight informative DNA markers on chromosome 6 (D6S461, D6S276, D6S105, D6S306, D6S258, D6S439, D6S291, and D6S1019). The results indicate significant linkage across a distance of at least 5 cM for deficits in orthographic (LOD = 3.10) and phonological (LOD = 2.42) skills, confirming previous findings.     

Analysis of specific deficits: Evidence of transfer in disabled and normal readers following oral-motor awareness training.

In an analysis of training procedures designed to address specific phonological deficits in disabled readers, 24 6- to 8-year-olds (reading disabled, age-matched controls, reading-level-matched controls) participated in both a reading and music acquisition paradigm. Children received instruction in grapheme-articulation and symbol-note correspondence patterns and, in the reading task, were taught to connect printed letter clusters with underlying oral-motor activity. Posttest results revealed that all groups of children were successful in the music task and in transferring sublexical segments representing trained reading rules, but disabled and young, normal readers were less able to read complete real and nonsense words. Disabled readers who demonstrated deficits specific to word identification learning revealed their ability to profit from rule-based instruction in symbol-to-note correspondence patterns and print-to-articulation relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Phonological and orthographic processing of Hebrew words: electrophysiological aspects

Brain activity among 15 male, college-level, normal readers in Israel was examined during phonological and orthographic word-recognition tasks. Both electrophysiological (event-related potentials, or ERPs) and behavioral measures were obtained. Data indicated that (a) behavioral accuracy was almost perfect for all the experimental tasks, and (b) although P200 and N400 ERP components were elicited in the experimental tasks, the latencies of those components were significantly longer and their amplitudes significantly higher in the phonological task. Variations in vowel information had no effect on word recognition in either type of task. The results suggest that among skilled readers of Hebrew, phonological processing during word recognition may be more effortful and may demand greater cognitive resources than orthographic processing. Furthermore, the additional phonological information represented in vowels appears to contribute little to word recognition in this population. These findings support earlier research on skilled reading in Hebrew as well as current theoretical models of reading.