Sense of humor as a moderator of the relation between stressful events and psychological distress: A prospective analysis.

Previous research has indicated that one's sense of humor serves as a moderator of the deleterious effects of negative stressful life events. However, because this research has been only cross-sectional in nature, such conclusions remain tentative. The purpose of this study was to provide for a more rigorous test of the humor as a stress-buffer hypothesis by using a prospective design that also attempted to control for the variance attributable to prior level of distress. Additionally, two measures of humor were included to increase the construct validity of the findings. Results from a series of regression analyses indicated that humor served as a moderator of stress for depressive, but not anxiety, symptomatology, regardless of the measure of humor that was used in the analyses. Implications of these findings for future research are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control as a modifier of the relationship between stressors and moods.

In the search for moderators of negative life events, locus of control (LOC) has been thought to be one of the more potentially important personality variables. Recent research has substantiated this hypothesis to a limited degree. The present 3 experiments with 216 undergraduates presents stronger indications for the utility of variables. LOC measures (Rotter's Internal–External LOC Scale) interacted with recalled negative life events in predicting mood states that were assessed weekly over a period of several weeks. Multiple regression analyses indicated that negative life events that had occurred during the high school years had a lingering effect on the current mood states of the more external Ss. On the other hand, more recent negative life events resulted in mood disturbances for all Ss regardless of LOC scores, although externals were equally distraught in the absence of negative events. Multiple correlations between negative life events, LOC, and mood scores attained sizable magnitudes. Positive life events, on the other hand, had relatively slight effects on subsequent mood disturbance. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Employee personality as a moderator of the relationships between work stressors and counterproductive work behavior.

The current study, which is framed within the context of the Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping, examined counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs) as a response to ineffective coping with work stressors. More specifically, we examined whether the relationship between work stressors and CWBs was moderated by employee personality. Analyses using data collected from 726 adults employed in a diverse set of occupations found that work stressors were more strongly related to CWBs among workers who were low in conscientiousness, or high in negative affectivity (NA) than among workers who were high in conscientiousness, or low in NA. We found less consistent support, however, for the moderating effects of agreeableness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping as a moderator of the relation between anxiety and career decision making.

Examined relations among trait anxiety, coping types, career decision making, and state anxiety related to career decision making with 248 undergraduates. Trait and state anxiety were measured by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; career decidedness or indecision was measured by the Vocational Decision Scale. Coping types (support-seeking behavior [Type I], self-efficacy behavior [Type II], reactive behavior [Type III], and symptom-altering and/or avoidant behavior [Type IV]) were determined by an adaptation of a coping scale developed by M. Van Sell et al (1980). Results indicate that trait anxiety and low sense of personal efficacy (i.e., not using Type II coping) were the primary predictors of career undecidedness. Three discriminant function analyses revealed that Ss who experienced high trait anxiety and did not use Type II coping were likely to experience high state anxiety and were not likely to make a career decision. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Employee age as a moderator of the relation between perceived work alternatives and job satisfaction.

This study was designed to explore whether employee age influences the relation between perceived work alternatives and job satisfaction. Moderated regression analyses were conducted using the survey responses of 226 employees between the ages of 24 and 50 who worked for a mental health institution. The analyses revealed that a Perceived Work Alternatives?×?Employee Age interaction significantly predicted job satisfaction. Neither organizational tenure nor employee educational level accounted for job-satisfaction variance beyond that accounted for by perceived work alternatives alone, nor did they interact with perceived work alternatives to predict job satisfaction. These findings indicate that employee age is associated with the relation between perceived alternatives and job satisfaction. They also provide some insight into which of a number of age-related effects may be most pertinent to this relation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Efficacy beliefs as a moderator of the impact of work-related stressors: A multilevel study.

This study built on previous exploratory research (S. M. Jex & D. M. Gudanowski, 1992) that examined both self-efficacy and collective efficacy as moderators of stressor–strain relations. Based on survey data collected from 2,273 U.S. Army soldiers representing 36 companies, it was found that both self- and collective efficacy moderated the relationship between stressors and strains. Multilevel random coefficient model results revealed that respondents with strong self-efficacy reacted less negatively in terms of psychological and physical strain to long work hours and work overload than did those reporting low levels of efficacy. In addition, respondents with high levels of self-efficacy responded more positively in terms of job satisfaction to tasks with high significance than did those with low efficacy. The results also revealed that group-level collective efficacy moderated the relationship between work overload and job satisfaction and between task significance and organizational commitment. Limitations of the study and implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-regulation as a moderator of the relation between coping and symptomatology in children of divorce

Investigated the effects of self-regulation as a moderator of the relations between coping efforts and psychological symptoms of children of divorce. The interactions of two dimensions of self-regulation (task orientation and approach-flexibility) and two dimensions of coping (active and avoidant) predicting children's postdivorce symptoms were tested using a sample of 199 divorced mothers and their children, ages 8 to 12. The approach-flexibility dimension moderated the relations of both active and avoidant coping with children's self-report of anxiety. At higher levels of approach-flexibility, active coping was negatively related to anxiety, while at lower levels of approach-flexibility, active coping was unrelated to anxiety. Avoidant coping was unrelated to anxiety at higher levels of approach-flexibility, whereas at lower levels of approach-flexibility, avoidant coping was positively related to anxiety. The task orientation dimension did not interact with coping, but had direct, independent effects on children's self-report of conduct problems, depression, and parent-report of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. The implications for understanding children's coping with divorce and future directions for research are discussed.     

Social support as a moderator of the relationship between work stressors and psychological dysfunctioning: A longitudinal study with objective measures.

The match hypothesis proposed by S. Cohen and T. A. Wills (1985) is extended, and the buffer effect of social support is tested within a longitudinal study with objective measures (N?=?90 male blue-collar workers in the German metal industry). Stressors at work were ascertained by observers and a variant of a peer rating. Psychological, physical, and social stressors at work and leisure time stressors were ascertained. The dependent variables of dysfunctioning were psychosomatic complaints, depression, irritation/strain, and (social) anxiety. There were moderator effects of social support on the relationship between stressors and psychological dysfunctioning. Results are in line with the match hypothesis as social stressors and socially oriented aspects of psychological dysfunctioning were affected most strongly. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation between locus of control and coping in two contexts: Age as a moderator variable.

We examined the relation between locus of control and coping as moderated by age and context. A total of 96 adolescents, young adults, middle-aged adults, and older adults were administered Lazarus's Ways of Coping questionnaire, a situation-specific controllability measure, a defensive coping questionnaire, and Levenson's Internality, Powerfulness of Others, and Chance global locus of control scales for challenging and threatening contexts. Age moderated the relation between locus of control and coping. Internality was positively related to escape–avoidance, hostile reaction, and self-blame for younger individuals and negatively related for older adults. A belief in powerfulness of others was positively related to planful problem-solving and self-controlling in older adults and negatively related for younger individuals. Finally, a belief in chance was positively related to distancing and self-controlling for older adults and negatively related for younger individuals. The implication that dimensions of control vary with age is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuroticism moderates the daily relation between stressors and memory failures.

The present investigation extends previous work on the relationship between daily stressors and memory failures in a naturalistic setting by examining whether this relationship varies across levels of neuroticism. A daily diary study of 333 older adults (mean age = 73.27 years, SD = 7.17) in the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study (see A. Spiro & R. Bossé, 2001, for additional information) was used to examine whether there were neuroticism differences in cognitive reactivity to daily stressors. Multilevel models indicated that on days when people high in neuroticism experienced stressors, particularly interpersonal stressors, they were more likely to report memory failures compared to those who were lower in neuroticism. The findings may have important implications for age-related cognitive decline. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectancy as a moderator of the relationship between job attitudes and turnover.

Tested the hypothesis that the strength of the predictive relationship of job attitudes on turnover is moderated by the expectancy of finding a comparable job. Tests were made separately with a sample of 222 office workers and a sample of 354 managers. Results, while supporting this hypothesis, show little enhancement of the typical relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reward structure as a moderator of the relationship between extraversion and sales performance.

The proposition that the relationship between extraversion and sales performance is moderated by reward structure was investigated. Specific hypotheses were tested with data obtained from 152 sales representatives. One group of sales representatives was rewarded primarily for obtaining new sales and another primarily for retaining customers. Data pooled across the 2 groups showed that extraversion did not correlate significantly with either new sales or customer retention. However, moderator analysis revealed that extraversion was positively associated with the dimension of performance that was explicitly rewarded but not with the nonrewarded dimension. A significant correlation between conscientiousness and new sales, but not between conscientiousness and customer retention, was found with the pooled data. As expected, relationships between conscientiousness and sales performance were not moderated by reward structure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Strain as a moderator of the relationship between work characteristics and work attitudes.

Research on the psychological effects of work characteristics has investigated their relationships with both work attitudes and psychological strain, with the latter 2 variables being treated as alternative or joint dependent variables. The focus of this article is to propose that strain moderates the relationship between perceptions of work characteristics and work attitudes. The proposition is tested on a maximum sample of 9,327 health care employees by using moderated multiple regression followed by subgroup comparisons. The results strongly support the moderating effect, showing that as strain increases, the strength of the relationship between perceptions of work characteristics and work attitudes decreases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dysphoria as a moderator of the relationship between perceived effort and perceived ability.

Although Heiderian logic (F. Heider, 1958) proposes an inverse relationship between ability and effort, research has uncovered dramatic individual differences in the judged relationship between the two. Some view ability and effort as positively related; others view them as negatively related. Study 1, with 64 undergraduates, explored dysphoria as a moderator of this relationship by gathering dysphoric and nondysphoric individuals' perceptions of their effort and ability on daily activities. Although ability and effort generally were positively related, dysphorics reported lower ability on high effort tasks. In Study 2, 84 undergraduate Ss rated their effort as high or low. Dysphorics discounted ability when effort was high; nondysphorics reported the greatest ability when they expended the greatest effort. Collectively, there was no support for an inverse relationship between ability and effort. However, dysphorics infer less ability than nondysphorics following high effort. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Commitment as a moderator of the goal-performance relation: A case for clearer construct definition.

A central assumption in the goal theory literature is that the degree of commitment to the assigned goal moderates the effectiveness of the goal-setting procedure. However, attempts to empirically verify commitment's moderating role have generally met with failure, calling into question either widely used measures of goal commitment, the moderating assumption itself, or both. Three studies are described that address this issue. Results indicate that the moderation assumption is valid but is only relevant to 1 of 3 closely related motivational concepts that are commonly discussed under the heading of commitment: prechoice attitudes, the subsequent choice of a personal goal, and the maintenance of that choice. It is suggested that a view of commitment that more clearly distinguishes these concepts can provide a better guide for future empirical research than can existing viewpoints. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-esteem as moderator of the relationship between expectancies and job performance.

Examined the implication of A. K. Korman's 1970 consistency hypothesis for predictions of work behavior, derived from L. Porter and E. Lawler's expectancy model, and evaluated the feasibility of moderating the expectancy-performance relationship with relevant variables. 367 male and female managerial-level employees were subgrouped by self-esteem scores (Ghiselli's Self-Assurance Scale), and correlations between expectancies and job performance were computed. 16 of 22 correlations for the high-self-esteem groups were higher. However, only 5 of the differences were significant, thereby providing equivocal support for the consistency hypothesis. Results indicate that moderator variables may be relevant to predictions of performance with expectancy measures. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Smoking as a moderator of the relationship between affective state and absence from work.

192 female student nurses from 2 hospitals were administered the Middlesex Hospital Questionnaire and a measure of smoking behavior. Sickness and absence data were taken from Ss' training records. Prior to exposure to the work situation, levels of affective distress did not differ significantly between groups differing in smoking behavior (nonsmoker, relaxation smokers, and stress smokers). Multiple regression analysis showed overall significant differences in absence frequency between hospitals and between smokers and nonsmokers. There was also a significant interaction between smoking behavior and affective state; only among the stress smokers did initial level of affective distress predict frequency of absence. Thus, the present study (conducted in a setting that did not permit smoking during working hours), showed that withdrawal from work in direct relation to affective symptom levels occurred only among Ss who habitually smoked in response to stress. (56 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Investigativeness as a moderator of stress.

Administered a 12 item investigativeness scale with questions on leisure activities, career interests, and preference for challenging or nonchallenging tasks in 2 studies. In Study 1, 59 male and 42 female undergraduates were assessed for negative life events (NLE), mood disturbance (MDB), and sensation seeking. Investigativeness was found to moderate the relationship between NLE and MDB. In Study 2, 161 females suffering from rheumatoid arthritis were assessed for psychological disturbance (PD), pain, (PN), and functional disability (FD). Investigativeness was negatively related to PD, PN, and FD. Findings show that investigativeness operated as a buffer to stressful experiences but did not moderate the relationship between Ss' physical status and their psychological distress. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Investigating equity sensitivity as a moderator of relations between self-efficacy and workplace attitudes.

This study integrated measures of equity sensitivity and self-efficacy in an effort to better understand how these variables may affect job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intent to leave. Equity sensitivity denotes how sensitive people are to overreward and underreward situations and has recently enhanced the accuracy of equity theory in predicting job satisfaction in social exchange situations. Self-efficacy, or task-specific self-confidence, is a central component of Bandura's social cognitive theory, and its influence on individuals' goals, efforts, and task persistence is well documented. Results from a field study of 242 employees in a health care firm support the moderating role of equity sensitivity in relations between self-efficacy and job satisfaction and between self-efficacy and intent to leave, but not between self-efficacy and organizational commitment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)