MICRO-COURSE OF CAVITATION EROSION

By cavitation tests and scanning electron microscope （SEM） microanalysis, the micro-appearance of cavitation samples is studied. It is the first time that the micro-appearance of metals is pursued successfully. According to the changing course of the micro-appearance of metals, the damaging course of cavitation erosion is determined. The destructive way of collapsing bubbles on the metal surface is known. Firstly cavitation pinholes appear on the metal surface, then cracks generate and grow under the action of collapsing bubbles. When cracks connect each other, small pieces are removed from pinhole wall and pinholes develop into cavitation pits. When the previous surface is removed completely, new pinholes are produced again on the new surface. A pinhole is the result of the powerful striking of a micro-liquid jet ejected by a large collapsed bubble near the surface. At some stages, cracks grow in the way of fatigue. The corrosion phenomenon is observed during the cavitation erosion. The cavitation pattern can be used to explain the cavitation pregnancy and the changing regulation of sample surface.     

液体中空泡收缩过程的数值研究

材料在液体中的空蚀破坏程度会因为液体环境的改变而大相径庭,而液体中空泡的生长、溃灭是造成材料空蚀破坏最根本的原因。为了研究液体环境对空泡运动过程的影响,利用有限差分法计算空泡在不同液体环境中的收缩过程,对不同液体黏性、表面张力条件下不同尺寸空泡的收缩过程进行了分析。计算结果表明:液体黏性会减缓空泡收缩过程中的脉动现象,且黏性越大,空泡收缩过程中脉动现象所持续的时间越短,脉动幅度也越小;表面张力越大,空泡收缩稳定后的半径也越大,且表面张力在空泡收缩过程中表现出的对空泡泡壁的加速效应会增大空泡的脉动频率。与前人的研究相比,研究还发现:在同样的液体环境中,随着空泡初始半径的减小,空泡在收缩过程中呈现出的脉动现象所持续的时间会越来越短,而最终稳定后的量纲一半径则会越来越大,即空泡在收缩过程中被压缩的比例越来越小。计算结果为理解液体中空泡的溃灭行为和由此引起的空蚀破坏提供了理论依据。     

Cavitation erosion resistance of Cr–N coating deposited on stainless steel

Results of investigation on cavitation-erosion resistance of Cr–N coating deposited on stainless steel X6CrNiTi18-10 (1H18N9T) by means of the cathodic-arc method are presented. The evaluation of Cr–N coating resistance to cavitation erosion is based on the investigation performed in a cavitation tunnel with a slot cavitator and tap water as a medium. The investigation was performed at variable-cavitation intensity and the estimated cavitation resistance parameters of coatings were the incubation period of damage and the instantaneous erosion rate after exposure of specified duration. It has been confirmed that the incubation period of the Cr–N coating damage is approximately 50% longer than that of the uncoated X6CrNiTi18-10 steel, and the instantaneous erosion rate after exposure of specified duration is comparable in both cases. The scanning microscope analysis indicates that the damage of Cr–N coating is due mainly to its delamination, while the erosion of deeper parts of the coating is of minor importance. The character of the coating and substrate damage in multiple locations indicates that the hard coating microparticles torn-off during the cavitation bubbles implosion hit against the coating and the revealed areas of substrate. As a result, the coating and especially the substrate of relatively low hardness are subject to cavitation erosion and to solid particle erosion with the hard torn-off microparticles of coating. The results of the investigation and the analysis indicate that the factors mainly responsible for a long incubation period and low cavitation erosion rate of the steel substrate/hard coating systems are the gained high hardness of substrate and high level of coating adhesion.     

表面形貌与空化噪声的相关性研究

空蚀过程中,材料的表面形貌与噪声均会发生变化。在超声振动空蚀装置中,空泡的溃灭情况并不会随着空蚀阶段的发展而发生变化,即空泡噪声不变。固体材料在空泡溃灭时形成的微射流或冲击波作用下所形成的噪声是引起整体噪声变化的主要因素,并受材料表面形貌的影响。通过相关性分析方法,得出在超声振动空蚀实验装置中,由于空泡溃灭冲击固体表面所形成噪声的特征频率所在频段的中心频率为3.15 kHz与6.3 kHz,并且它们对应的声压级随粗糙度的增大而逐渐减小。     

Cavitation erosion of a flat surface near a rotating shaft

To clarify the phenomenon of cavitation erosion in the sliding bearings of internal combustion engines, an apparatus was prepared and tests were conducted on cavitation in the oil between the cylindrical face of a rotating shaft and the tip of a horn attached to an ultrasonic oscillator. This apparatus produces an oil flow and a plus-minus oil pressure between a shaft and a horn tip to simulate erosion and its distribution on bearing surfaces.From patterns of cavitation erosion on the tip of a horn made of an Al-Sn alloy and the pressure distribution on the wedge oil film, it was determined that the region where cavitation bubbles occur and the region where erosion occurs owing to the collapse of the bubbles do not necessarily coincide.Cavitation erosion was found to occur in both the plus and the minus oil film pressure regions and erosion due to bubble collapse occurs in the regions where pressure increases in the direction of oil flow.The test results allow the postulation of the mechanism and the reasons for the occurrence of cavitation erosion on actual sliding bearing surfaces.     

Cavitation damage studies using plasticine

Two mechanisms, namely, the spherical pressure wave and the microjet, have been used to account for the erosion of materials resulting from the collapse of cavitation bubbles. In recent years, however, high speed photography of collapsing bubbles has added support to the microjet mechanism. Experiments have been undertaken by the authors to examine the mechanism of the erosion of materials subjected to a cavitation environment. Stationary specimens of plasticine held in close proximity to the end of an ultrasonic horn have been damaged by cavitation in distilled water. By virtue of the features of the pits formed, as shown in the photographs in the paper, it is concluded that the cavitation erosion damage results from the impingement of high velocity microjets on the material surface during bubble collapse.     

Scaling study of cavitation pitting from cavitating jets and ultrasonic horns

Cavitation erosion prediction and characterization of cavitation field strength are of interest to industries suffering from cavitation erosion detrimental effects. One means to evaluate cavitation fields and materials is to examine pitting rates during the incubation period, where the test sample undergoes localized permanent deformations shaped as individual pits. In this study, samples from three metallic materials, an Aluminum alloy (Al 7075), a Nickel Aluminum Bronze (NAB) and a Duplex Stainless Steel (SS A2205) were subjected to a vast range of cavitation intensities generated by cavitating jets at different driving pressures and by an ultrasonic horn. The resulting pitted sample surfaces were examined and characterized with a non-contact 3D optical scanner and the resulting damage computer-analyzed. A statistical analysis of the pit population and its characteristics was then carried out. It was found that the various cavitation field strengths can be correlated to the measured pit distributions and that two characteristic quantities: a characteristic number of pits per unit surface area and unit time, and a characteristic pit diameter or a characteristic pit depth can be attributed to a given “cavitation intensity level”. This characterization concept can be used in the future to study the cavitation intensity of the full scale and to develop methods of full scale predictions based on model scale erosion data.     

基于图像灰度统计的调节阀空化分布特性研究

针对调节阀内复杂的空化流动现象,研究调节阀内的空化形态特征和分布特性。建立调节阀空化图像采集试验系统,采用高速相机对空化形态进行捕捉。由于空泡的生长、溃灭等动力学行为使空泡群的密度和数量的不同,捕获的图像上灰度值的变化与空泡的演变过程之间存在相关性。该文通过空化图像中灰度值的变化来识别空化区域,且为提高分析可靠度,引入三个特征量：相似系数R确定所需样本数量、灰度变化率λ来表征空泡的动力学行为变化、平均灰度值ψ表达空化长度。根据这三个特征量,我们准确获得了调节阀内空化产生的位置、分布区域以及形态的变化。调节阀流道内空化附着区域可分为空化形成区(IR)、发展区(DR)和溃灭区(CR)。背压是影响空化附着区域形态的一个重要因素。随着背压的增加,其对空化的抑制作用比较明显,空化形成区的终点也是溃灭区的起点,即空化在流道内的分布形式仅为空化形成、溃灭这两种分布形式。此外,随着背压的增加,空化强度减弱,空化长度亦减小。     

Experimental investigation on noise of cavitation nozzle and its chaotic behaviour

The researches of cavitation noise mainly focus on the incipiency and developing of cavitation to prevent the cavititation erosion in the hydraulic machinery, while there is few report about the collapse strength of cavitation bubbles produced by water jet through the cavitation nozzle to utilize efficiently the collapse energy of cavitation bubbles. The cavitation noise signals are collected with hydrophones for the cavitation nozzle and general nozzle at the target position and the nozzle exit separately in the conditions of different standoff distance. The features of signal’s frequency spectrum and power spectrum are analyzed for various nozzles by way of classical methods. Meanwhile, based on chaotic theory, phase space reconstruction is processed and the maximum Lyapunov index is calculated separately for each cavitation signal’s time series. The results of chaotic analysis are compared with the one of conventional analysis. The analyzed data show that there are the marked differences at the spectrum between the cavitation nozzle and general nozzle at the target position while the standoff distance is 35 mm, which mainly displays at the high frequency segment (60-120 kHz). The maximum Lyapunov index calculated appear at standoff distance 35 mm, which is an optimum standoff distance for the most bubbles to collapse at the target. At the nozzle exit, the noise signal of cavitation nozzle is different from the general nozzle, which also displays at the high frequency segment. The results demonstrate that the water jet modulated by the cavitation nozzle can produce effectually cavitation, and at the target position the amplitude and energy of noise spectrum in high frequency segment for cavitation nozzle are higher than conventional nozzle and the Lyapunov index of cavitation nozzle is larger than conventional nozzle as the standoff distance is less than 55 mm. The proposed research reveals that the cavitation noise produced by collapse of cavitation bubbles attributes mainly to the high frequency segment     

冲蚀与空蚀交互磨损三相流场仿真与试验研究

基于计算流体力学方法,数值研究在模拟水轮机工况下,冲蚀与空蚀交互作用时,试件表面上汽液固三相流场的动力学特性(压力场、速度场、汽相体积比分布),然后在转盘式磨损装置上,进行汽液固三相冲蚀与空蚀交互磨损试验,并对试件微观形貌进行分析。结果表明:数值分析得到试件表面最小和最大压力值、气泡速度最大值和汽相比例最大值均出现在空化孔附近,其他位置基本不变,说明空化孔附近交互磨损比单一空蚀磨损严重。就某一空化孔而言,顺着转盘旋转方向的孔边某一夹角展开区域汽相比例较大,并且出现最小和最大压力;从试件微观磨痕分析,其上存在短程犁沟和空蚀孔,磨痕呈现规律性。仿真的气泡轨迹和试件磨痕基本一致,数值计算结果和试验结果吻合得较好,从而证明了数值分析的正确性和合理性。上述数值仿真为揭示流体机械过流部件冲蚀与空蚀交互作用磨损机理奠定了基础。     

Effect of nozzle geometry on a standard cavitation erosion test using a cavitating jet

In order to accurately and reliably evaluate the cavitation erosion resistance of materials using cavitating jet apparatus according to ASTM G134, the effect of various types of nozzle geometries on the erosion rate was investigated. As the erosion rate depends on the erosion time and the distance from the nozzle to the specimen, i.e., the standoff distance, the mass loss as a function of erosion time at the optimum standoff distance was measured. It was shown that the erosion rate depended on the nozzle geometry. In fact, the aggressive intensity of the cavitating jet I_J depends on the nozzle geometry. When a cavitating jet of low I_J was used in the erosion test, it took some time to reach the maximum cumulative erosion rate E_Rmax, which is recommended in ASTM G134 as a parameter for determining the cavitation erosion resistance of materials. In the present experiment, the difference in E_Rmax was more than 600%, and the time required to reach E_Rmax was also scattered over 600%, for the different nozzles used. It was also revealed that E_Rmax could be obtained from the product of I_J and the reciprocal of the relative cavitation erosion resistance of the material, R_ER.     

Relationship between cavitation structures and cavitation damage

A study of visual and erosion effects of cavitation on simple single hydrofoil configurations in a cavitation tunnel was made. A two-dimensional hydrofoil with circular leading edge was used for the experiments. In addition, the hydrofoil geometry was modified to obtain some three-dimensional cavitation effects. A thin copper foil, applied to the surface of the hydrofoil, was used as an erosion sensor. Cavitation phenomenon above hydrofoils at different flow conditions (system pressure, water gas content) was observed. Images of vapour cavities from above and from side view were taken. A statistical evaluation of cavitation structures was made. Images of damaged copper coated hydrofoil surface were taken under sufficient magnification. A pit-count method, based on computer-aided image processing, was used for direct measurement of the cavitation erosion by evaluating the damage of the surface of the hydrofoil. A relation between characteristics of cavitation structures and cavitation damage was established.     

Performance of environment-friendly hydraulic fluids and material wear in cavitating conditions

The cavitation performance of various metals and hydraulic fluids used in a hydraulic system was evaluated using the vibratory test method. Mineral oil, vegetable oil and oil-in-water emulsions were used in the experiments. The materials were selected based on the general components employed in a hydraulic system—AA 5005 aluminium alloy, ASTM A536-84 ductile spheroidal graphite (SG) cast iron, ASTM A48-83 grey cast iron, AISI 303 stainless steel and BS 1400 LG2 bronze. It was observed that vegetable oil exhibits the best medium for erosion resistance for all metals due to its high viscosity index. Emulsions having higher oil concentration produced lesser erosion damage. It was seen that an increase in viscosity led to a decrease in the rate of growth and collapse of bubbles and hence reduced erosion on the surfaces of the specimens. The experiments also revealed that materials with high hardness had less cavitation damage for all lubricants. A comparison of cavitation performance revealed that materials and hydraulic fluids have a dependent relationship. Results indicate that AISI 303 stainless steel would be the best choice in the construction of a hydraulic system and this is especially the case when using a hydraulic fluid that has a high viscosity index.     

Mechanisms of Formation of Spheroids Produced by Cavitation Erosion

The prediction, control, and prevention of unscheduled downtime due to wear of industrial equipment is an important engineering problem. The characterization of wear particles and the study of the mechanism of their formation will aid in preventive maintenance. Of particular interest is the mechanism of formation of spherical particles during wear and erosion. It has been suggested that cavitation erosion is a mechanism of formation for these spherical particles. Using both a vibratory apparatus and a jet erosion facility, spherical particles were produced on various materials including aluminum and 52100 steel. Special techniques for isolating and mounting the eroded particles were developed. Spheroids ranging from 0·5 μ (microns) to 30 μ in diameter were observed in the vibratory cavitation method both in distilled water and in SAE 10W nondetergent oil. Much larger spheroids up to 150μ in diameter were observed in clusters with the jet erosion method. Scanning electron microscope studies revealed craters, plastic flow, overflowing lips, and splashing stems. Based on these observations, it is theorized that the high strain rate indentation of the cavitation bubbles leads to the splash of metal into the surrounding liquid where surface tension produces spherical particles. Supporting experimental evidence and calculations are also presented.     

Cavitation erosion of aluminum matrix sintered composite with AlN dispersoids

The cavitation erosion resistance of P/M aluminum alloy-sintered composite with AlN dispersoids, prepared via the in situ synthesis and the conventional premixing process, was evaluated by using magnetostrictive-vibration type equipment. In situ synthesized AlN particles were effective for the improvement of the erosion resistance of the composite because of their good bonding with the aluminum matrix. The additive AlN by the premixing process were easily detached from the specimen surface due to the insufficient coherence with the matrix, and caused the poor resistance. The cavitation resistance also depended on the porosity of the sintered composite. The continuously opened pores accelerated the wear phenomena by the cavitation due to the high-pressure attack on the primary particle boundaries of sintered materials in the collapse of the bubbles.     

Investigation of cavitation erosion using X-ray residual stress analysis

In this paper it will be shown that by X-ray residual stress analysis it is possible to obtain information on the cavitation process after only short cavitation times. To clarify the correlation between cavitation erosion and changes in residual stress, samples of various steels were tested in a flow cavitation device. The residual stress measurements showed that cavitation leads to the development of compressive residual stresses in the surface of the samples. The rate at which these residual stresses develop depends on the intensity of cavitation. Cavitation-induced changes in residual stress may also be observed in samples with pre-existing residual stresses due to handling, e. g. mechanical working, heat treatment etc. After very short cavitation times the local variation in cavitation intensity may be very clearly seen in the residual stress distribution in the surface. After a longer period of cavitation, compressive residual stresses reach a limiting value which is not exceeded even at points of highest cavitation intensity.     

Breakup of cavitation bubbles within the diesel droplet

Supercavitation in the diesel nozzle increases the instability of droplets in part due to the two-phase mixture, while the effect of cavitation bubbles on the instability of drops is still unclear. In order to investigate the breakup of cavitation bubbles within the diesel droplet, a new mathematical model describing the disturbance growth rate of the diesel bubble instability is developed. The new mathematical model is applied to predict the effects of fluids viscosity on the stability of cavitation bubbles. The predicted values reveal that the comprehensive effect of fluids viscosity makes cavitation bubbles more stable. Compared with the viscosities of air and cavitation bubble, the diesel droplet＇s viscosity plays a dominant role on the stability of cavitation bubbles. Furthermore, based on the modified bubble breakup criterion, the effects of bubble growth speed, sound speed, droplet viscosity, droplet density, and bubble-droplet radius ratio on the breakup time and the breakup radius of cavitation bubbles are studied respectively. It is found that a bubble with large bubble-droplet radius ratio has the initial condition for breaking easily. For a given bubble-droplet radius ratio （0.2）, as the bubble growth speed increases （from 2 m/s to 60 m/s）, the bubble breakup time decreases（from 3.59 gs to 0.17 ps） rapidly. Both the greater diesel droplet viscosity and the greater diesel droplet density result in the increase of the breakup time. With increasing initial bubble-droplet radius ratio （from 0.2 to 0.8）, the bubble breakup radius decreases （from 8.86 trn to 6.23 tm）. There is a limited breakup radius for a bubble with a certain initial bubble-droplet radius ratio. The mathematical model and the modified bubble breakup criterion are helpful to improve the study on the breakup mechanism of the secondary diesel droplet under the condition of supercavitation.     

Predictive capability of long-term cavitation and liquid impingement erosion models

A brief overview is presented of long-term cavitation and liquid impingement erosion and modeling methods proposed by different investigators, including the curve-fitting approach and a power law relationship recently suggested from this laboratory. A table is prepared to highlight the number of variables necessary for each model in order to compute the erosion versus time curves. An attempt was made to investigate the importance of the different models using data from both cavitation and liquid impingement devices. Detailed analysis of data sets indicates that the normalized curve-fitting approach suggested from this laboratory affords a better solution than other models for certain sets of data with scatter bands to cover a wide range of experimental conditions. The study also indicates that the methods proposed by Heymann and Thiruvengadam are good for the prediction of individual materials following the peak erosion rate. A power law relation proposed between cavitation erosion rate and cumulative erosion may solve several modeling problems.     

泵空化现象的研究综述

介绍了空化现象发生的主要原因以及空化与空蚀对泵水力机械性能的影响,分析了影响泵空化性能的因素,阐述了对泵的空化现象的研究方法与空化监测,最后从4个方面介绍了为防止泵发生空化现象而相应采取的措施。     

离心泵空化余量分析研究

许多泵长期运行处在临界空化工况与初生空化工况之间,会造成叶片表面出现坑蚀和穿孔等破坏,从而使泵因空化而达不到预期寿命.由此选用一种单级单吸离心泵为研究对象,基于湍流模型k-ε和空化模型Zwart,进行非定常空化数值计算结果分析.对于初生空化的判定,以σ≥1.0时叶片表面刚刚发生空化,产生的汽泡对外特性无影响,且以汽体体...