Post-mining rehabilitation of coastal sand dunes in Zululand South Africa

In the process of dredge mining, employed since 1977 on the Zululand coast, heavy minerals are extracted from the dunes after the complete removal of the existing vegetation. The tailings are then reshaped to approximate their original contours, covered with topsoil and revegetated with a cereal cover crop, together with indigenous seeds of long-lived (woody) species. The existence of stands of different ages over a recorded period provided an opportunity to study changes in species composition and vegetation dynamics. Five random 10 × 10m quadrats were sampled in stands of age 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 years respectively, and cover data were used for multivariate analysis using TWINSPAN and DECORANA. Importance values of each species, and total and mean species richness were also calculated. Pre-mined and mined soil samples were analysed for trace elements, organic matter and pH. Recently rehabilitated areas of 4 to 5 years were dominated by Acacia karroo, but species richness showed a progressive increase with age of rehabilitated stands, with more woody species in the older stands and a slight decline in dominance of A. karroo. TWINSPAN classified older and younger stands into distinct groups which were related to a chronological succession gradient, also shown by the DECORANA ordination. Some soil nutrients of rehabilitated areas compared favourably with the pre-mined topsoil and subsoil, but percentage organic matter content was still higher in natural dune forests. Increases in soil nutrients suggest that nutrient retention and the establishment of substantial soil flora and fauna are occurring, providing evidence for the sustainability of the soils. From this study it appears that successional changes follow the facilitation pathway, and rehabilitation will eventually lead to the restoration of the dune forest.     

Identifying the spatial mixture distribution of bird diversity across urban and suburban areas in the metropolis: A case study in Taipei Basin of Taiwan

This study utilized a finite mixture distribution model (FMDM) to identify the distribution of bird diversity in urban and suburban areas of the Taipei basin. The spatial patterns of Shannon's diversity index were estimated using Sequential Gaussian simulation (SGS) with bird investigation data. To validate the results of FMDM, bird groups were classified by two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) based on bird presence-absence records. The probabilities exceeding FMDM's cut-off values for suburban bird communities were obtained from SGS realizations. The results showed that bird diversity in the Taipei basin could be comprised of two-component mixture distributions for urban and suburban bird communities, respectively. The FMDM bird diversity classifications fit the TWINSPAN groups of urban and suburban species. The spatial maps of bird diversity in the study area provide evidence that a metropolis can cause changes in the spatial characteristics of bird communities at the landscape level. Furthermore, the bird diversity and land use maps could be useful for future conservation and urban planning in Taipei Basin, particularly urban green spaces and wetlands. The maps could also be utilized in network planning of green belts or corridors for ecological conservation.     

Complex hydrological controls on wet dune slacks: the importance of local variability

Dune slacks are a species-rich habitat controlled largely by water chemistry and fluctuations in groundwater. Changes in water chemistry and water table level were analysed in 8 piezometers and 15 ephemeral surface water locations at a large UK dune system over a 12-month period. Total nitrogen concentrations in groundwater varied from 0.27-8.21 mg N L(-1), where dissolved organic nitrogen was dominant at the low nitrogen locations and nitrate was dominant at the high nitrogen locations. Principal components analysis of the water chemistry suggests at least four chemically distinct groundwater signatures. Water levels showed strong temporal heterogeneity. Comparisons of water levels with antecedent rainfall identified a component of year-round groundwater feed and differing seasonal responses overlain by a complex series of lags. In summer, there were lags of four, six and seven months with an additional rapid peaky response to daily rainfall with a one-day lag. In winter, water levels were strongly influenced by exogenous groundwater supply, but again exhibited multiple lags. This study shows that local variations in water chemistry and in hydrological regime can be more complicated than previously thought, with clear implications for optimum management of these high priority habitats for conservation.     

Pattern and divergence of tree communities in Taipei's main urban green spaces

Urban vegetation increasingly contributes to nature conservation and ecosystem services, but lacking understanding of site variations has restricted such uses. This study analyzed the spatial pattern and differentiation of tree communities in three major green landscape types (urban parks, riverside parks and street verges) in Taipei city. In each landscape type, 10 representative tree communities were studied. Statistical tests for ecological communities were employed: Jaccard and Q species similarity indices, two-way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN), and new species fidelity, landscape fidelity and composite Q indices. Significant recent increase in Taipei's green spaces was traced. The study area contained 164 tree species, but few were shared by the three landscape types and none by 30 communities. Native evergreen broadleaf species with large final dimensions were dominant. Urban parks registered the highest species richness, landscape fidelity, rare species and urban endemics. Such exclusive species constitution deviated notably from riverside parks and street verges, with relatively simple and converging intra-site species ingredients. Pronounced species differentiation between urban parks reflected diversified site topography, natural woodland inheritance, woodland creation, and past landscape fashion. TWINSPAN classified the communities into nine groups each with signature characteristics. Inherent site variations offered main determinants of tree heterogeneity, superimposed by human modification to satisfy pre-determined site functions. A hybrid urban park with high species diversity and nature contents is advocated by amalgamating conventional but polarized designs of country and urban parks. The findings could inform management of urban forest, urban nature conservation, and ecological services of urban green spaces.     

Ecology and energetics of slacks in the Alexandria coastal dunefield

This paper summarises information on the structure and function of dune slacks as discrete ecosystems within the Alexandria coastal dunefield. A typical slack, with a total area of 1900 m² and floor area of 8833 m², harbours four dominant species of pioneer plants in a succession spanning 5 years, corresponding to the interval between a section of slack floor being uncovered by a retreating dune and smothered by an advancing dune. Vegetation biomass totals 221.1 g m⁻² and detritus mass 40.1 g m⁻², with 31% and 3% above ground, respectively. Annual plant production is estimated at 190 g m⁻² using a combination of theoretical calculations and vegetative growth estimates. Animal biomass has been quantified for interstitial meiofauna at 1.0 g m⁻² and all arthropod and vertebrate macrofauna at 0.2 g m⁻². Based on estimated decomposition coefficients of 0.5 year⁻¹ and theoretical consumption estimates for the fauna, 14% of plant production is grazed directly (93% by plant parasitic nematodes, 7% by macrofauna) and 86% enters the detritus pool. Of the latter, 2% is consumed by macrofauna detritivores, 63% is decomposed by the interstitial fauna and 35% accumulates to add to the detritus pool. Vegetation succession and production in the slack thus results in a net build-up of organic matter in the sand. This is finally decomposed when the slack is smothered by an advancing dune ridge, thus maintaining a long term equilibrium level of soil organics. These slacks require minimal management as long as free dune movement and limited human access are maintained.     

Plant reestablishment 15 years after the debris avalanche at Mount St Helens,Washington

Vegetation has slowly reestablished on the debris avalanche deposit in the 15 years after the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens that created a 60-km(2) debris avalanche, the largest landslide in recorded history. There has been a gradual increase in species richness and cover, but only 61% of the species present on the mountain before the eruption have established on the debris avalanche deposit. Plant cover averages 38% and is extremely patchy. Life form composition changed over successional time, because part of the avalanche deposit was invaded by introduced plant species aerially seeded to reduce erosion, the site offers the opportunity to compare successional processes occurring with and without introduced species. Long-term recovery trends and effects of nonnative species on succession are important to understand since plant reestablishment practices often rely on nonnative species for enhancing vegetation recovery of denuded sites along road sides, strip mines, or other human-generated clearing. Fifteen years after the eruption and 10 years since the invasion by introduced species, plots invaded by nonnative species had greater vegetation cover and more native plant richness than plots that were not inundated. Significantly greater mortality of conifers occurred in the plots dominated by introduced species shortly after the invasion of those species, but no difference in conifer mortality occurred in the last 5 years. Even so, the plots dominated by introduced species still have fewer conifer trees. Thus, the short-term pulse of conifer mortality after the invasion of introduced species may have long-term effects on the recovery of the dominant vegetation. It will likely be decades before there is 100% plant cover on the debris avalanche deposit and a century or more before full recovery of the vegetation system.     

The distribution, abundance and diversity of birds in Manila's last greenspaces

Urban environments are not considered areas with conservation importance. However greenspaces in cities have been previously identified as areas with significant avian biodiversity. We investigated the distribution and diversity of birds in what are increasingly considered as Metropolitan Manila's last greenspaces; the University of the Philippines campus, military cemeteries and two government operated parks. Using species–area analysis, abundance and diversity indices, TWINSPAN ordination and logistic regression to determine important landscape features for species presence, we describe the distribution of bird communities and diversity in Metropolitan Manila. Two major bird community groupings were observed. These are the urban exploiters and the urban adaptable with the former occurring in high abundances and the latter in low abundances in greenspaces. The number of built and natural spatial entities determines abundances. Species area analysis suggests that the greenspaces are distinct habitats that preserve faunal uniqueness whereas urbanization tends to decrease diversity. These observations suggest that greenspaces harbor significant avian biodiversity as well as the presence of endemic and threatened species. As the greenspaces possess remnant wetland and wooded habitat we recommend that they be preserved and maintained by ensuring that these habitats are incorporated in any urban development plan.     

Spider colonization of former brown coal mining areas — time or structure dependent?

Colonization of former mining areas by a highly mobile arthropod group, spiders (Arachnida), is studied based on a comparative analysis of four mining areas of different age and habitat structure including adjacent undisturbed areas. Species number was lowest in sparsely vegetated sites, and highest in dense vegetation regardless of age. Species number may exceed that of undisturbed adjacent sites after 70 years. Similarity among the sites ranges from 26 to 75% (Sörensen index). A DCA ordination of sites revealed a grouping into three relatively distinct clusters, one including the vegetation free sites, the second the sparsely vegetated short grass sites, and the third both the plant species rich, mature, short grass sites and the tall grass stands. Environmental variables were related to the species composition by means of CCA. However, most of these relations proved to be spurious being either not significant or if so, showing a low contribution to variance explanation. The influence of scale parameters such as area size and distance (when analysing all data, data from mining areas only, or data from one mining area separately) becomes visible in all analyses. A detailed analysis including age as an independent variable shows that age has some influence on the structure of the whole data set including undisturbed sites, but not within the subset of the mining areas. Using data from one mining area only it is shown that the influence of age and spatial autocorrelation effects cannot be properly distinguished on the larger scales. A more detailed account on the known autecology of the species encountered showed that biological spectra of the communities remain similar in the course of development. Initial colonization occurs very rapidly during the first years after dumping. The most decisive aspect of population establishment is the structure of the vegetation, as expressed by height or volume amenable for colonization. Despite some developmental trends such as increase in species number clearly separated successional stages cannot be distinguished.     

Monitoring lichen recolonization on a restored calcareous statue

Monitoring lichens on monuments can have different purposes, one of which is monitoring the effectiveness of restoration. In the present work, lichen recolonization on a calcareous statue was monitored for evaluating the long-term effectiveness of restoration in preventing new biological growth. Species richness and composition of lichen communities from three surveys (one pre-restoration and two post-restoration) covering a twelve years period, are compared. The long-term effectiveness of the restoration of the statue was low, and even the use of water repellents failed in avoiding lichen recolonization. The short durability of the treatment applied to the statue was also confirmed by the recolonization pattern which seemed more related to the geometry of the statue than to the hydrorepellence of its surface. Recolonization involved lichen communities which differed from those covering the statue before restoration. Some species were significantly associated with each step of the succession, as well as to pre-restoration conditions. The pre-restoration lichen community was more differentiated across the statue, indicating a complex “Statue Ecosystem” that is perhaps more typical of a later successional stage. On the contrary, only a few communities dominated by a few species were involved in the recolonization. The management of stoneworks exposed in the parks of villas could be more effective focusing on maintenance than on repeated cleaning or restoration, whose effects are hindered by practical difficulties in preventing the causes of biological growth. If restorations are not going to be maintained, it would be better to retain a more historic, diverse, and complex lichen community than a simplified community of “weedy” lichens that quickly cover almost the same area as the pre-restoration community did. With this perspective, in the environmental and artistic context of these parks, biodiversity should be included in the concept of the historic and artistic value of the artworks.     

Carabid communities in the spatio-temporal mosaic of a rural landscape

The effect of landscape dynamics on carabid communities was investigated using a chronosequence of managed grassland sites. A total of 52 carabid species was found. Species richness was significantly higher in early than in later stages of grassland succession. The change from an arable land to a grassland carabid community was almost complete 10 years after the conversion to grassland. The accompanying change in the dominant feeding mode indicates a marked shift in the functional structure of the carabid community from arable land to grassland. Correlation analysis revealed a positive response of phytophagous species to dense and species-rich grassland vegetation that was only loosely related to grassland age.Invasion of grassland species was largely confined to the early stages of carabid succession. On the other hand, loss of species continued until the latest stage of the chronosequence, though many species preferring arable land had already vanished a short time after the conversion to grassland. The species turnover was independent of the dispersal abilities of the carabid species involved. This is probably due to the high spatial connectivity of suitable habitats in the small-scale landscape mosaic of the Lahn-Dill-Bergland.It is concluded that the variety of land use (arable land versus grassland) contributes considerably more to the species richness of carabids at the landscape level than the simultaneous availability of grassland sites of different age, provided that areas converted to grassland are allowed to persist for at least 10 years. The missing invasion of additional species into later stages of grassland succession can partly be explained by the premature state that is maintained at the older sites by management.     

“Wilderness”: what it means when it becomes a reality—a case study from the southwestern Alps

Within the framework of the transdisciplinary research project “Changes in alpine landscapes resulting from a decline in land use in the Val Grande National Park and Strona Valley—from rural landscape to wilderness”, the impacts of uncontrolled nature development on the landscape’s structural diversity, plant species richness, as well as on the local population and tourists were investigated. The study area was the community of Premosello Chiovenda in the Val Grande National Park—“Italy’s largest wilderness area”. In order to achieve reliable results, methods for conducting historical landscape analysis, ecological inventories and empirical–social research were combined. As a result of land abandonment, the floristic species richness is decreasing in higher successional stages, and depending on the altitude, the structural diversity of the landscape is changing. Wildfires in the successional communities pose threats to the neighbouring villages. Nevertheless, many rural and cultural landscape characteristics persist, and past uses continue to have a significant impact on future landscape development. The main impacts on the inhabitants are psychological and economic in nature. Around the villages, they regard the effects of abandonment in a very negative light. Visitors of the area judge the consequences of land abandonment differently. While they regard the resulting landscape’s wildness positively, they also regret the cultural losses suffered by rural communities. If the abandoning processes continue, rural landscape and its associated habitats will be lost. Despite this, new habitats, such as those resulting from ecosystem dynamics, will form. The evolving landscape is not, however, hospitable as a living space for man. The characteristics intrinsic to the landscape in the absence of its productive use and maintenance render it uninhabitable. A reasonable scenario for Premosello Chiovenda should provide the coexistence of dynamic, “wild” areas, free from further agri- or silvicultural uses and areas of cultural importance, where traditional and innovative forms of land use should be encouraged and developed. In the future, decision-makers should be aware of the positive and negative aspects of a large-scale rewilding, and all stakeholders, especially the affected local communities, should be included in any decision making process that concerns the establishment of protected areas which are left to develop without human control.     

Recommendations for design and management of golf courses and green spaces based on surveys of breeding bird communities in Montreal

It has been suggested that golf courses can serve as wildlife habitat, provided key landscape features are present. Breeding bird communities were characterized on six golf courses and six green spaces in the Montreal area, Quebec, Canada. Landscape variables were measured to see which were the best correlates of avian species richness within and across sites. While there was no difference in the mean number of bird species (golf: 31 ± 2.4 SE; green: 33 ± 4.5 SE), golf courses supported fewer total species (golf: 55; green: 66). However, most of the species contributing to the green spaces’ higher cumulative total were found at one site. Species composition differed between golf courses and green spaces, and was most correlated with site size, housing density surrounding the site, and extent of coniferous tree, grass, and vegetated water cover. Our results support the work of others, and suggest that golf course architects can improve habitat quality by: (1) increasing deciduous and coniferous tree cover; (2) increasing native vegetation within and surrounding all water bodies; (3) reducing the amount of highly managed grass area; (4) ensuring large, undeveloped buffers are maintained to prevent a shift in avian community composition with increasing urban sprawl; and (5) ensuring sites are planned as large as possible.     

Aerodynamic design of a kinetic sculpture

This paper presents a novel application of galloping to the design of a kinetic sculpture intended to represent the shape and motion of dune grass. This 35 m sculpture will consist of a flexible composite mast with an elliptical profile head, deliberately designed to generate slow but large-amplitude cross-wind galloping oscillations. The galloping characteristics of triangular, triform and cruciform head cross-sections have been investigated using static and dynamic wind tunnel tests, and modelled successfully using a simple energy balance method. The effect of yaw angle on galloping of three-dimensional shapes is much more significant than for 2D prisms, with the formation of leading-edge vortices from the swept edges tending to suppress galloping. This results in a desirable ‘self-furling’ feature, with the sculpture ceasing to move in high winds as the mast bands backwards. A full scale prototype has been successfully tested, in advance of the installation of a group of six Dune Grass sculptures on the sea front at Blackpool.     

A tool for tracking floodplain age land surface patterns on a large meandering river with applications for ecological planning and restoration design

An alluvial river channel typically meanders by eroding its outer banks and depositing sediments on the inside of bends, producing new land surfaces. Over time the landscape pattern created by these processes is important to the understanding of riparian plant ecology and the spatial structure of riparian forest development for restoration planning and design as well as other purposes. The middle sector of the Sacramento River is an actively meandering channel that deposits sediments in discrete new areas from fluvial geomorphic events creating a land age gradient. Newly formed land undergoes a primary succession by woody species such as willow and cottonwood communities that provide habitat for important conservation target species in California. Conservation and restoration of primary and secondary successional processes is an important management goal on the Sacramento River. The objectives of this paper were: (1) to develop and codify new methods to track the surficial chronological patterns of floodplain land age in a meandering river system, and (2) to analyze land production and the spatial distributions of gravel bars, riparian vegetation communities, and forest structure in relation to the land age gradient. Results from the ecological analysis indicate 71% of extant riparian vegetation was located within the 101-year meander zone; willow (18%) and cottonwood (31–43%) had the highest proportional canopy cover on lands aged 1–9 and 10–44 years, respectively. Potential applications of this approach for conservation and restoration planning and design of alluvial river floodplains are discussed.     

Assessing land-use effects on water quality, in-stream habitat, riparian ecosystems and biodiversity in Patagonian northwest streams

Changes in land-use practices have affected the integrity and quality of water resources worldwide. In Patagonia there is a strong concern about the ecological status of surface waters because these changes are rapidly occurring in the region. To test the hypothesis that greater intensity of land-use will have negative effects on water quality, stream habitat and biodiversity we assessed benthic macroinvertebrates, riparian/littoral invertebrates, fish and birds from the riparian corridor and environmental variables of 15 rivers (Patagonia) subjected to a gradient of land-use practices (non-managed native forest, managed native forest, pine plantations, pasture, urbanization). A total of 158 macroinvertebrate taxa, 105 riparian/littoral invertebrate taxa, 5 fish species, 34 bird species, and 15 aquatic plant species, were recorded considering all sites. Urban land-use produced the most significant changes in streams including physical features, conductivity, nutrients, habitat condition, riparian quality and invertebrate metrics. Pasture and managed native forest sites appeared in an intermediate situation. The highest values of fish and bird abundance and diversity were observed at disturbed sites; this might be explained by the opportunistic behavior displayed by these communities which let them take advantage of increased trophic resources in these environments. As expected, non-managed native forest sites showed the highest integrity of ecological conditions and also great biodiversity of benthic communities. Macroinvertebrate metrics that reflected good water quality were positively related to forest land cover and negatively related to urban and pasture land cover. However, by offering stream edge areas, pasture sites still supported rich communities of riparian/littoral invertebrates, increasing overall biodiversity. Macroinvertebrates were good indicators of land-use impact and water quality conditions and resulted useful tools to early alert of disturbances in streams. Fish and birds having a greater ability of dispersion and capacity to move quickly from disturbances would reflect changes at a higher scale.     

Local and landscape scale variables impact parasitoid assemblages across an urbanization gradient

Urbanization is a major driver of land cover change worldwide, yet little is known about how urbanization affects beneficial arthropod communities. This study examined how local and landscape scale variables associated with urbanization influenced parasitic Hymenoptera abundance and diversity in residential and commercial properties along a rural to urban landscape gradient in Wisconsin. At a landscape scale, 300 m surrounding sites, land cover percentages were calculated for five cover classes: impervious cover, forest, grassland, agriculture, and urban green space. In addition, habitat diversity (Simpson's index) was calculated for the landscape surrounding study sites. At a local scale (within the boundaries of an individual property), flower diversity, flower area, tree density, and hardscape were measured and related to parasitoid abundance and diversity. During 2006 and 2007, parasitoids were sampled twice a month June-August using yellow sticky cards. Parasitoid abundance was a positive function of flower diversity, a local scale variable. The positive relationship between parasitoid abundance and flower diversity only occurred in areas containing high to moderate levels of urban development, suggesting parasitoids locally benefited from the increased availability of floral resources in urban but not rural sites. Parasitoid diversity decreased as impervious cover increased in the surrounding landscape. Parasitoid diversity decreased by approximately 10% in highly urbanized sites relative to rural sites, a pattern driven by several parasitoid families not detected in urban sites. These results suggest conservation strategies that focus on landscape variables at multiple scales can play an integral role in preserving beneficial arthropods across urban landscapes.     

An Ecological Redoubt: Assisting the Migration of Sensitive Flora in the Central Swiss Alps

Switzerland’s alpine ecologies are uniquely affected by climate change. Many of the country’s plant species are migrating higher in altitude due to rising annual mean temperature with extensive habitat loss expected in as early as 2050. Given the compounded effects of the growing tourism economy and the expanding presence of aggressive pioneer plant species, regionally significant alpine meadows have been displaced before their sensitive and rare plant communities can adapt. This impending loss of biodiversity is quickly becoming a national ecological redoubt. Situated at the crossroads of the Oberalp, the St. Gotthard, and the Furka passes, the town of Andermatt lies at the eastern end of the Urseren Valley, a floristically diverse region of Central Switzerland. Abandoned military bunkers and fortresses (Fort Stöckli and Artillery Works Gütsch) overlook Andermatt as relics of the Swiss National Redoubt defence plan. This project investigates how specific military infrastructure integrated into the landscape can be repurposed into living archives for research, preservation, and propagation of alpine plant communities. Can this design strategy combining active and passive interventions mitigate anthropocentric pressures on these alpine ecologies while providing a new purpose to outmoded military infrastructure? Will a strategically managed ecological retreat preserve Swiss identity beyond the non-human?     

Lichen biota in the low land of the Ob basin

The article reviews the lichen diversity in the low land of the Ob basin based on the data published by the author and other specialists. So far, species diversity has reached 430 taxonomic units from 102 genera and 42 families. There are data about the distribution of certain lichen species for the main types of habitat and substrates with in cenosis. The largest variety is shown in communities of dark coniferous forests and mixed forests with declining aspens in the tree layer (215 species), of forested fens (161 species), and inundated forest cenosis (100 species). The least variety is found in ground slope communities (13 species) and phytocenoses of transition moors (12 species).     

Preliminary observations on managing and reclaiming frontal dunes within the Durban municipal area

The Bluff dunes, located within the Durban (South Africa) municipal area, have become increasingly degraded as a consequence of human pressures over the last quarter century. The resulting localised wind-blown sand pollution of roads and storm drains necessitated a dune reclamation project involving a multi-disciplinary team of Parks managers and engineers. An effective solution was provided by a combination of physical sand/wind screens, and irrigation aided revegetation of dunes employing several locally occurring indigenous plant species. Liaison with the community at all development phases has allowed for an effective solution which is practical, cost-effective, environmentally sound and socially accepted. This paper outlines the methods employed and steps taken in dune revegetation on the Bluff, and discusses the practical problems encountered, together with the solutions. The system follows a series of steps that any land manager can use to maintain a cover over the sand. It has a multi-disciplinary approach, so that engineers, ratepayers and scientist can all contribute to the process.     

Satellite based land use and landscape complexity indices as predictors for regional plant species diversity

It is known that habitats composed of spatially heterogeneous abiotic conditions provide a great diversity of potentially suitable niches for plant species. The scientific premises of landscape ecology suggest that, at a higher spatial level, also the composition and structure of the landscape mosaic, influences biotic processes and hence species richness. In this exploratory study we investigated if plant species diversity could be correlated with landscape structure and complexity indices which were based on Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite imagery. Plant species data were derived from the 4 km×4 km resolution Flora Database of Flanders (i.e. northern Belgium). Plant species number within the 4 km×4 km grid cells was positively correlated with most of the landscape diversity indices whereas landscape fragmentation indices only affected the group of the threatened species. We found a gradient of increasing species richness beginning from the rural areas of Flanders over the suburban towards the urban areas. This gradient was mostly due to the higher number of alien plant species, warmth indicators and threatened species in urbanised areas. We conclude that, at least in the studied region, the effects of landscape changes on plant species diversity can be monitored and predicted on a large scale and over long periods of time using land cover data. Bottleneck in this kind of analyses remains the reliability of the land cover data and the availability and reliability of the biological data.