Goals and everyday problem solving: Manipulating goal preferences in young and older adults.

In the present study, we examined the link between goal and problem-solving strategy preferences in 130 young and older adults using hypothetical family problem vignettes. At baseline, young adults preferred autonomy goals, whereas older adults preferred generative goals. Imagining an expanded future time perspective led older adults to show preferences for autonomy goals similar to those observed in young adults but did not eliminate age differences in generative goals. Autonomy goals were associated with more self-focused instrumental problem solving, whereas generative goals were related to more other-focused instrumental problem solving in the no-instruction and instruction conditions. Older adults were better at matching their strategies to their goals than young adults were. This suggests that older adults may become better at selecting their strategies in accordance with their goals. Our findings speak to a contextual approach to everyday problem solving by showing that goals are associated with the selection of problem-solving strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Associations between autobiographical memories and concepts.

Three experiments investigated associations between autobiographical memories and different types of concepts. Two types of concepts, goal-derived categories and taxonomic categories, were used to prime memory retrieval to related category exemplar cues. In all 3 experiments, only goal-derived categories were found to reliably speed memory retrieval. Weak associations between speed of memory retrieval and both the specificity and the personal importance of the memory were found; memories that were high in these qualities were retrieved more quickly than memories low in these qualities, and this was independent of the type of cue used to prompt retrieval. These findings demonstrate that goal-derived categories are closely associated in long-term memory with records of specific experiences. It is proposed that this close association is mediated by the role of goal-derived concepts in event knowledge. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of interpersonal problem-solving training with chronic aftercare patients on problem-solving component skills and effectiveness of solutions.

Administered group skills training to 7 chronic psychiatric patients (aged 24–45 yrs) who were enrolled in a partial-hospitalization program and had difficulty solving interpersonal problems. Training focused on the development of 5 problem-solving components: problem identification, goal definition, solution evaluation, evaluation of alternatives, and selection of a best solution. A multiple-baseline design was used to demonstrate training effectiveness through improved problem solving on trained situations and through skill generalization to novel, untrained situations. Maintenance of the training was evaluated after 1 and 4 mo. Social validation was accomplished by comparing the problem-solving competency of the patient sample with skills demonstrated by 20 normal nonpsychiatric persons (aged 22–60 yrs). Results show that following training, the frequency of targeted problem-solving components increased substantially. Training effects were generalized to unfamiliar problem situations and largely maintained at follow-ups. For both problem-solving situations, Ss' overall problem-solving was equivalent to the competency levels displayed by the normal community sample. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Traits as goal-based categories: The importance of goals in the coherence of dispositional categories.

It is argued that goals are central to the meaning and structure of many traits and help define the prototypicality structure of those traits. Partly on the basis of L. W. Barsalou's (1985) work on goal-derived categories, it was predicted that goals help define the judged prototypicality of many trait-related behaviors and the confidence with which people make trait inferences from those behaviors. Consistent with this hypothesis, ratings of the extent to which behaviors achieved the goal associated with a trait strongly predicted the typicality of the behaviors. Furthermore, the rated goal-relatedness of a behavior also strongly predicted the confidence with which people would make a trait inference from that behavior. It is suggested that goals play a major role in the conceptual coherence of traits and other social categories. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counseling for indecisiveness: Problem-solving and anxiety-management training.

Evaluated counseling procedures for reducing anxious vocational indecision. 32 university students with this problem were identified and randomly assigned to 5 training conditions: anxiety management, problem solving, a combination of the 2, a placebo procedure, and a no-treatment condition. The same counselor group administered the treatment and placebo procedures. The experimental design consisted of pre- and postassessment of vocational, anxiety-related, and problem-solving variables. A combination of anxiety-management and problem-solving training resulted in significantly greater gains than either method alone with respect to vocational exploratory behavior, awareness of career plans, and problem-solving behavior. It is concluded that vocational indecision appears to be due to deficiencies in problem solving and execution of chosen alternatives. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A scientific problem-solving model of psychological assessment.

Comments that much of the current controversy in psychodiagnostics is a result of the failure to differentiate between assessment as a process of problem solving and testing as one set of methods for problem solving. One solution to this problem is for practice and training to shift away from their current emphasis on knowledge and technical expertise and toward a conceptual approach to psychological assessment. A scientific, problem-solving model of psychological practice is described in detail as it applies to the process of assessment. The model consists of 3 basic elements: The problem-solving process, levels of organizational action, and methods. The problem-solving process itself is broken down into 6 steps: problem clarification, planning, development, implementation, evaluation, and dissemination. Implications of the model for the improvement of practice, for the determination of assessment competency, and for training are discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problem-solving workshop training.

Assessed the effects of intensive problem-solving training on outcomes related to counseling. 50 undergraduates who expressed a need for and willingness to participate in a problem-solving workshop were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: a treatment group, a pre–posttest control group, and a posttest-only control group. Treatment consisted of didactic presentations, group discussions, and directed practice in 5 90-min sessions that were designed for systematic training in 5 stages of problem solving. Dependent variables were generation of alternatives, decision-making skill, and Ss' perceptions of their problem-solving skills as measured by Subtests 2 and 3 of the Problem-Solving Test and the Problem-Solving Inventory. Results indicate that training did influence the quality of response, but training did not increase the number of Ss' alternatives. Ss participating in the workshop also described themselves as using fewer impulsive behaviors during problem solving than nonparticipant controls. No differences were found among groups on their ability to make effective choices from among a set of alternatives. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support, problem solving, and the longitudinal course of newlywed marriage.

Married couples (N = 172) were observed as newlyweds and observed again 1 year later while engaging in 2 problem-solving and 2 personal support discussions. Microanalytic coding of these conversations was used to examine associations between problem-solving and social support behaviors for 1 year and their relative contributions to 10-year trajectories of self-reported relationship satisfaction and dissolution. Results demonstrated that initially lower levels of positive support behaviors and higher levels of negative support behaviors predicted 1-year increases in negative emotion displayed during problem-solving conversations. Emotions coded from the initial problem-solving conversations did not predict 1-year changes in social support behaviors. Controlling for emotions displayed during problem-solving interactions eliminated or reduced associations between initial social support behaviors and (a) later levels of satisfaction and (b) relationship dissolution. These findings corroborate models that prioritize empathy, validation, and caring as key elements in the development of intimacy (e.g., Reis & Shaver, 1988) and suggest that deficits in these domains foreshadow deterioration in problem solving and conflict management. Implications for integrating support and problem solving in models of relationship change are outlined, as are implications for incorporating social support in education programs for developing relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Too upset to think: The interplay of borderline personality features, negative emotions, and social problem solving in the laboratory.

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is associated with poor social problem solving and problems with emotion regulation. In this study, the social problem-solving performance of undergraduates with high (n = 26), mid (n = 32), or low (n = 29) levels of BPD features was assessed with the Social Problem-Solving Inventory—Revised and using the means-ends problem-solving procedure before and after a social rejection stressor. The high-BP group, but not the low-BP group, showed a significant reduction in relevant solutions to social problems and more inappropriate solutions following the negative emotion induction. Increases in self-reported negative emotions during the emotion induction mediated the relationship between BP features and reductions in social problem-solving performance. In addition, the high-BP group demonstrated trait deficits in social problem solving on the Social Problem-Solving Inventory—Revised. These findings suggest that future research must examine social problem solving under differing emotional conditions, and that clinical interventions to improve social problem solving among persons with BP features should focus on responses to emotional contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Access and organization of goal-derived categories after traumatic brain injury

This study examined the access and organization of goal-derived categories in semantic memory with a group of chronic traumatic brain injured TBI adults and a group of age and gender-matched neurologically-intact controls. Goal-derived categories are developed by individuals for use in specialized contexts to achieve a goal, such as 'things to take on a camping trip.' Categories were presented to subjects in two task contexts: category verification and exemplar generation. Overall, the TBI subjects were able to accurately identify and organize category exemplars within particular categories. Interestingly, the TBI subjects produced significantly more total responses than the neurologically-intact subjects on exemplar generation; however, a high percentage of their responses (one-third) were inaccurate, consisting of out-of-set responses and repetitions. These findings suggest that difficulties in retrieval may exist in the presence of relatively intact access and organization of goal-derived category structure. The results are discussed relative to deficits in the executive control of verifying goal-directed behaviour and incomplete category representation.     

The Relationship Between Working Memory and Mathematical Problem Solving in Children at Risk and Not at Risk for Serious Math Difficulties.

This study identified cognitive processes that underlie individual differences in working memory (WM) and mathematical problem-solution accuracy in elementary school children at risk and not at risk for serious math difficulties (SMD). A battery of tests was administered that assessed problem solving, achievement, and cognitive processing in children in first (N = 130), second (N = 92) and third grades (N = 131). The results were that (a) younger children and children at risk for SMD performed poorer on WM and problem-solving tasks, as well as measures of math calculation, reading, semantic processing, phonological processing, and inhibition, than older children and children not at risk for SMD and (b) WM predicted solution accuracy of word problems independent of measures of fluid intelligence, reading skill, math skill, knowledge of algorithms, phonological processing, semantic processing,'speed, shortterm memory, and inhibition. The results support the notion that the executive system is an important predictor of children's problem solving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactions to school consultation: Some considerations from a problem-solving perspective.

W. Pryzwansky's (see record 1989-38304-001) research on cognitive aspects of problem solving as applied to experts and novices in school psychology is critiqued, and contributions to the literature are highlighted. Major issues discussed include potential differences between expert problem solving in the sciences and collaborative problem solving in school consultation. Also discussed are problem-solving research applied to school consultation, the demand (or lack of) for consultative services, and implications (e.g., timing) for training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experience sampling study of learning, affect, and the demands control support model.

The demands control support model (R. A. Karasek & T. Theorell, 1990) indicates that job control and social support enable workers to engage in problem solving. In turn, problem solving is thought to influence learning and well-being (e.g., anxious affect, activated pleasant affect). Two samples (N = 78, N = 106) provided data up to 4 times per day for up to 5 working days. The extent to which job control was used for problem solving was assessed by measuring the extent to which participants changed aspects of their work activities to solve problems. The extent to which social support was used to solve problems was assessed by measuring the extent to which participants discussed problems to solve problems. Learning mediated the relationship between changing aspects of work activities to solve problems and activated pleasant affect. Learning also mediated the relationship between discussing problems to solve problems and activated pleasant affect. The findings indicated that how individuals use control and support to respond to problem-solving demands is associated with organizational and individual phenomena, such as learning and affective well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of open goals on the acquisition of problem-relevant information.

There have been a number of recent findings indicating that unsolved problems, or open goals more generally, influence cognition even when the current task has no relation to the task in which the goal was originally set. It was hypothesized that open goals would influence what information entered the problem-solving process. Three studies were conducted to establish the effect of open goals on the acquisition of problem-relevant information. It was found that problem-relevant information, or hints, presented implicitly in a 2nd task in between attempts at solving problems aided problem solving. This effect cannot be attributed to strategic behavior after participants caught on to the manipulation, as most participants were not aware of the relationship. The implications of this research are discussed, including potential contributions to our understanding of insight, incubation, transfer, and creativity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unrealistic expectations and problem-solving ability in maltreating and comparison mothers.

Administered a child development questionnaire, a parent opinion questionnaire, and a parent problem-solving instrument to 10 abusing mothers, 10 neglectful mothers, and 10 matched nonabusing mothers to determine differences in expectations and problem solving. Results show that both groups of maltreating Ss had significantly greater unrealistic expectations and poorer problem-solving skills than did comparison Ss. No differences were found between Ss in the 2 maltreating groups. It is suggested that interventions aimed at modifying faulty expectations and training problem-solving skills would be helpful to maltreating mothers. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluation of a social-problem-solving training program for suburban and inner-city third-grade children.

Assessed the effects of a 52-lesson, class-taught, social-problem-solving (SPS) training program, with 3 questions in mind: (a) Does training improve interpersonal problem-solving abilities? (b) Does it enhance behavioral adjustment? (c) Are problem solving and adjustive gains related? 243 suburban and inner-city program 3rd graders and controls were evaluated on a variety of problem-solving and behavioral-adjustment measures. Program Ss improved more than controls on several cognitive skills, including problem identification, alternative-solution thinking, and consequential thinking as well as on behavioral problem-solving performance. The intervention positively affected the adjustment of suburban but not urban Ss. However, relationships between problem-solving skill improvements and adjustive gains were not found. Variables such as program curriculum and the age and sociodemographic attributes of its targets must be better understood in exploring the potential of SPS training to promote behavioral adjustment. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ideals and category typicality.

Barsalou (1985) argued that exemplars that serve category goals become more typical category members. Although this claim has received support, we investigated (a) whether categories have a single ideal, as negatively valenced categories (e.g., cigarette) often have conflicting goals, and (b) whether ideal items are in fact typical, as they often have unusual attributes. Because past studies on ideals were largely correlational and often used categories not strongly associated to goals (e.g., tree, bird, fish), we took an experimental approach, using categories with obvious goals. Our results indicated that exemplars having goal-fulfilling characteristics are generally judged as less typical than exemplars with average features. Also, although subjects had a general consensus on the ideals of neutral and positive categories, they held opposing opinions on the ideals of the negatively valenced categories. We found that this bimodality in idealness perception was due to differing perspectives taken on the categories; however, perspectives that changed idealness of category exemplars did not influence their typicality. In short, ideal exemplars that best serve category goals are not necessarily perceived as typical. We contrast the goal-fulfilling aspect of ideals with the structural notion of extreme values (e.g., very tall trees), which may influence typicality through other mechanisms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Everyday problem solving in adulthood and old age.

We examined everyday problem solving in adulthood and compared it with traditional measures of cognitive abilities. In the first phase of the research, we describe the construction of an inventory to assess problem solving in situations that adults might encounter in everyday life and examine raters' judgments of effective responses to the problems. In the second phase, adults (N?=?126) between the ages of 20 and 78 were administered the inventory and tests of verbal and abstract problem-solving abilities. Results indicated modest but significant positive correlations between performance on the inventory and traditional ability tests. The examination of age differences revealed that performance on the Everyday Problem-Solving Inventory and verbal ability test increased with age, whereas performance on a traditional problem-solving test declined after middle age. In addition, education was unrelated to everyday problem solving, highly related to verbal ability, and moderately related to traditional problem solving. Results are discussed in relation to pluralistic conceptions of intelligence and theories of adult intellectual development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)