Analysis of changes in the structure of rural household energy consumption in northern China: A case study

There is currently a paucity of research examining changes in the structure of household energy consumption in rural areas of northern China. Here, we thoroughly analyze household energy consumption in terms of energy sources and energy end-uses in villages of Huantai County from 1989 to 2005. Results indicated that commercial energy consumption increased, both in the absolute amount and the relative proportion. Non-commercial energy (traditional biomass energy) use decreased greatly but still accounted for a significant proportion of all energy sources. In terms of energy end-uses, cooking and home-heating energy consumptions were of nearly equal importance. While energy for cooking has historically dominated total consumption, energy used for recreational activities increased dramatically in comparison. In addition, we discuss the influence of changes in energy consumption structure on household energy expenditures, environmental effects and supply-demand balance of energy. Results showed the payout of household energy consumption was stable, the environment deteriorated, the fossil fuel supply was unsustainable in the long term. For the sustainable development of local energy sources, the environment, and the economy, it will be imperative to fully exploit suitable, local renewable energy resources.     

Representing in-home and out-of-home energy consumption behavior in Beijing

It is expected that in-home and out-of-home energy consumption behavior in a household might be correlated with each other, probably due to the existence of household budget constraints. Ownership and usage of energy-saving technologies for in-home appliances (or vehicles) might lead to the increase in out-of-home (or in-home) energy consumption. It is therefore necessary to jointly represent in-home and out-of-home energy consumption in the same modeling framework. With this consideration, we first build a new type of energy consumption model based on the Multiple Discrete–Continuous Extreme Value (MDCEV) modeling framework. Next, we conducted a questionnaire survey in Beijing in 2009 and successfully collected the information about households’ energy consumption, ownership/usage of in-home appliances and vehicles, and households’ and their members’ attributes from 1014 households. Throughout an empirical analysis, it is confirmed that the MDCEV model is effective to simultaneously describe the in-home and out-of-home energy consumption behavior. In addition, it is revealed that a set of household and personal attributes affect the ownership and usage of in-home appliances and vehicles. Furthermore, it is shown that the unobserved factors play a much more important role in explaining energy consumption behavior than the observed attributes of households and their members.     

Rural household energy demand modelling : A case study of Nepal

This paper describes the methodology adopted to arrive at a casual linear multiple regression to estimate and project end-use energy requirements of a rural household of Nepal. The general model developed is capable of estimating and projecting the total end-use energy requirements if eight variables are known. These are: standard population, household expenditure, agricultural commodity, number of livestock, number of cookstoves, area covered by housing, topography and forest accessibility condition, of a particular village. The method has been applied to estimate primary energy requirements in the household sector of a few surveyed villages typical of Nepal's different physiographical regions. Total useful energy is estimated considering the end-use efficiency of the devices employed for specific end-use activities. Relevance of the socio-economic variable for estimating end-use energy requirements for different villages varies according to the availability, price and choice of specific fuels for different end-use activities.     

Evaluating energy conservation outreach programs: A case study in Minnesota

The Minnesota Energy Agency and the Department of Administration sponsored workshops for boiler operators in 1979. The workshops, attended by engineers from state-owned facilities and from private buisnesses, dealt with improvements to fuel/air ratios for large gas and oil-fired boilers.

The process and costs of developing and running these workshops are documented. Two different surveys of workshop attendees were conducted, one directly after the workshops and the second two months later. The first survey asked attendees about their reactions to the course (instructor, manual, and visuals) and their intentions to make the fuel/air ratio changes that were discussed during the workshops. The responses were remarkably positive, with 82% of the attendees rating the probability of making these changes as either excellent or good.

The followup telephone survey sought to determine how many attendees had actually made these changes in the two months following the workshops. Again, the results were quite positive: 79% of the respondents said that they had made the adjustments to some or all of their boilers. Altogether 60% of the boilers operated by these respondents had been adjusted.

If these responses accurately reflect the changes made because of the workshops, then the State of Minnesota saved $88,000 in fuel bills during 1979. This is three times the cost of running the two March workshops (including the value of the attendees' time). This suggests that this workshop—and by implication, others like it—are an effective use of State resources.     

Comprehensive evaluation of household indirect energy consumption and impacts of alternative energy policies in China by input–output analysis

Households consume a large amount of indirect energy through the consumption of goods and services. This fact makes the quantitative analysis of indirect household energy consumption the foundation of energy policy design. This paper improves the compilation method of energy input–output tables, and establishes a sequence of energy input–output tables for China. Based on these tables, the indirect energy consumption of both rural and urban households is calculated. Then, with economic data for the year of 2005, the adjusted input–output price model is applied to evaluate how the alternative energy policies impact production prices, consumption prices, and real income of rural and urban households through the mechanism of indirect energy consumption by using electricity as an example. This research has practical implications for Chinese economy. The integration of energy-efficiency improvements and energy prices increase serves as a means to achieve both economic and energy conservation goals, and may also have a positive effect on residents’ real income and a minimal effect on production prices.     

Determinants of household energy consumption in India

Improving access to affordable modern energy is critical to improving living standards in the developing world. Rural households in India, in particular, are almost entirely reliant on traditional biomass for their basic cooking energy needs. This has adverse effects on their health and productivity, and also causes environmental degradation. This study presents a new generic modelling approach, with a focus on cooking fuel choices, and explores response strategies for energy poverty eradication in India. The modelling approach analyzes the determinants of fuel consumption choices for heterogeneous household groups, incorporating the effect of income distributions and traditionally more intangible factors such as preferences and private discount rates. The methodology is used to develop alternate future scenarios that explore how different policy mechanisms such as fuel subsidies and micro-financing can enhance the diffusion of modern, more efficient, energy sources in India.     

青藏高原牧区家庭能源消费调查与结构特征——以青海省为例

牧区是气候变化的敏感区和脆弱区,牧民家庭能源消费是牧区人地关系的重要组成部分。文章基于问卷访谈获取了第一手数据,对青海省4个州市的77户牧区家庭进行了全面深度分析,对比不同收入分组家庭的能源消费数据,研究青藏高原牧区家庭能源消费的结构特征,并建立典型家庭的物质流模型,辨识不同家庭能源消费特点。结果表明:①青海省牧区非商品能源占比为71.6%,受退牧还草政策影响,家庭能源消费结构从以畜粪为主转向多种能源组合;②交通用能已经成为牧区家庭能源消费的主要增长点,并呈现进一步增长的趋势;③与低收入家庭相比,高收入家庭的能源消耗种类更多、体量更大、能源流动更频繁。     

Longitudinal working models: Estimates of household energy consumption in Australia

The paper uses household expenditure survey data and alternative functional specifications of Engel's laws to establish an empirical pattern of disaggregate energy (ie electricity, gas, other fuels and gasoline) demand characterized by different demographic attributes for use in a combined panel data model of energy consumption and impact in Australia. The findings lend support, in terms of statistical efficiency and economic–theoretic plausibility, to the dominance of the Working form over the conventional linear Allen–Bowley function. Energy as a whole is a necessity while at the disaggregate level gasoline is considered a luxury. The findings indicate in this respect the existence of demand elasticity bias in aggregate energy models.     

A system dynamics approach to scenario analysis for urban passenger transport energy consumption and CO2 emissions: A case study of Beijing

With the accelerating process of urbanization, developing countries are facing growing pressure to pursue energy savings and emission reductions, especially in urban passenger transport. In this paper, we built a Beijing urban passenger transport carbon model, including an economy subsystem, population subsystem, transport subsystem, and energy consumption and CO₂ emissions subsystem using System Dynamics. Furthermore, we constructed a variety of policy scenarios based on management experience in Beijing. The analysis showed that priority to the development of public transport (PDPT) could significantly increase the proportion of public transport locally and would be helpful in pursuing energy savings and emission reductions as well. Travel demand management (TDM) had a distinctive effect on energy savings and emission reductions in the short term, while technical progress (TP) was more conducive to realizing emission reduction targets. Administrative rules and regulations management (ARM) had the best overall effect of the individual policies on both energy savings and emission reductions. However, the effect of comprehensive policy (CP) was better than any of the individual policies pursued separately. Furthermore, the optimal implementation sequence of each individual policy in CP was TP→PDPT→TDM→ARM.     

Evaluating the risks of alternative energy policies: a case study of industrial energy efficiency

Numerous studies have shown the potential for US manufacturing to cut its energy costs by installing more efficient equipment that offers competitive payback periods, but the realization of this potential is hindered by numerous obstacles. This paper evaluates seven federal policy options aimed at revitalizing US manufacturing by improving its energy economics while also achieving environmental and energy reliability goals. Traditionally, policy analysts have examined the cost-effectiveness of energy policies using deterministic assumptions. When risk factors are introduced, they are typically examined using sensitivity analysis to focus on alternative assumptions about budgets, policy design, energy prices, and other such variables. In this paper, we also explicitly model the stochastic nature of several key risk factors including future energy prices, damages from climate change, and the cost of criteria pollutants. Using these two approaches, each policy is "stress tested" to evaluate the likely range of private and social returns on investment. Overall, we conclude that the societal cost-effectiveness of policies is generally more sensitive to alternative assumptions about damages from criteria pollutants and climate change compared with energy prices; however, risks also vary across policies based partly on the technologies they target. Future research needs to examine the macroeconomic consequences of the choice between a lethargic approach to energy waste and modernization in manufacturing versus a vigorous commitment to industrial energy productivity and innovation as characterized by the suite of policies described in this paper.     

A method for estimating non-commercial energy consumption in the household sector of developing countries

A method for estimating non-commercial energy consumption in the household sector of developing countries is presented. It has been observed that the energy demand for cooking is not income-elastic. The average requirement per person and hence the total requirement, both in useful energy terms, can be determined. The actual total commercial energy consumption for cooking is converted to useful energy terms and subtracted from this total to give a residual which is the estimated total amount of non-commercial energy used for cooking. The residual may be converted to delivered or primary energy by using an appropriate conversion factor. Using this method, the annual consumption of non-commercial energy has been estimated for selected Southeast Asian countries between 1960 and 1980.     

Rural household energy consumption pattern in the disregarded villages of Bangladesh

Energy is one of the most important ingredients required to alleviate poverty and realize socio-economic and human development, which is directly interconnected to the prominence of life in rural areas. An extensive survey on household energy consumption pattern interrelating socio-economic and demographic factors was carried out in the disregarded villages of Bangladesh using stratified random sampling technique of 120 households. This paper focuses on household energy consumption, various combinations of fuels and their expenditure in the study area. Biomass, kerosene, electricity, LPG and candle were found as the energy carrier used in the rural households in this study. The study shows that 92% households use biomass, 28% LPG, 89% kerosene, 78% electricity and 27% candle as fuel types. It was found that 56% households collected biomass from their own homesteads and/or agricultural lands. Bamboo, branches, cow dung, firewood, rice husk, leaves & twigs and straw were found as the biomass for household energy use. Average monthly household expenditure for total energy was US$ 9.67 (SE, 0.31) per month while the total monthly income of the household was US$ 123 (SE, 2.53). The ratio of the total monthly energy expenditure to the total monthly income was 7.86%. The study will be helpful to understand the energy consumption system and its expenditure in the rural areas of Bangladesh and to the policy formulation for energy production, consumption and utilization.     

Electric vehicle energy consumption modelling and estimation—A case study

Electric vehicles (EVs) have a limited driving range compared to conventional vehicles. Accurate estimation of EV's range is therefore a significant need to eliminate “range anxiety” that refers to drivers' fear of running out of energy while driving. However, the range estimators used in the currently available EVs are not sufficiently accurate. To overcome this issue, more accurate range estimation techniques are investigated. Nonetheless, an accurate power‐based EV energy consumption model is crucial to obtain a precise range estimation. This paper describes a study on EV energy consumption modelling. For this purpose, EV modelling is carried out using MATLAB/Simulink software based on a real EV in the market, the BMW i3. The EV model includes vehicle powertrain system and longitudinal vehicle dynamics. The powertrain is modelled using efficiency maps of the electric motor and the power electronics' data available for BMW i3. It also includes a transmission and a battery model (ie, Thevenin equivalent circuit model). A driver model is developed as well to control the vehicle's speed and to represent human driver's behaviour. In addition, a regenerative braking strategy, based on a series brake system, is developed to model the behaviour of a real braking controller. Auxiliary devices are also included in the EV model to improve energy consumption estimation accuracy as they can have a significant impact on that. The vehicle model is validated against published energy consumption values that demonstrates a satisfactory level of accuracy with 2% to 6% error between simulation and experimental results for Environmental Protection Agency and NEDC tests.     

Empirical estimates of the direct rebound effect: A review

Improvements in energy efficiency make energy services cheaper, and therefore encourage increased consumption of those services. This so-called direct rebound effect offsets the energy savings that may otherwise be achieved. This paper provides an overview of the theoretical and methodological issues relevant to estimating the direct rebound effect and summarises the empirical estimates that are currently available. The paper focuses entirely on household energy services, since this is where most of the evidence lies and points to a number of potential sources of bias that may lead the effect to be overestimated. For household energy services in the OECD, the paper concludes that the direct rebound effect should generally be less than 30%.     

Quantifying the rebound effects of energy efficiency improvements and energy conserving behaviour in Sweden

Doubts have recurrently been raised on the extent to which energy efficiency can reduce the demand for energy. Improvements in efficiency may cause so-called rebound effects by reducing the prices of energy services as well as by increasing the budget for consumption of other goods and services. The magnitude of such effects is crucial to whether energy efficiency should be a strategy for environmental policy or not. This paper aims to derive a general expression of the rebound effects of household consumption in a parameterised form where available data can be tested. The paper analyses how different parameter assumptions affect the quantification of rebound effects and what may be reasonable ranges. Income effects are quantified using data from the Swedish Household Budget Survey of different goods and services split on income classes. The changes in consumption patterns with increasing income are used to establish the composition of marginal consumption. Combined with energy intensities derived from input–output analysis, this gives a model of how money saved on energy use in one sector may lead to increased energy use in other sectors. The total rebound effects of energy efficiency improvements appear to be in the range 5–15% in most cases, but these results are fairly sensitive to assumptions of energy service price elasticities. Cases with low or negative capital costs for energy efficiency improvements may also result in much higher rebound effects as the income effects become more important. Energy-conserving behaviour (reduced energy service demand) affecting direct energy use such as heating and transport gives rise to rebound effects in the order of 10–20%, depending on the household expenditure per primary energy for different fuels and energy carriers.     

Economic and environmental gains of China's fossil energy subsidies reform: A rebound effect case study with EIMO model

Energy consumption and efficiency emerged as the hottest topic in the context of China's sustainable development. Energy subsidies and “rebound effect” were closely related to this topic while few combinative studies on them with a focus on China. This paper employed a co-thinking approach, focusing on how the energy subsidies reform could mitigate the rebound effect in China, and how to achieve an “economic and environmental gains” that reduced pecuniary spending, improved the distorted energy market and reduced energy consumption simultaneously. Firstly, with price-gap approach we calculated the total energy subsidies scale of China in 2007, which amounted to582.0 billion CNY; then we detected and identified rebound effect of China energy consumption with the features. Furthermore, based on China 2007 monetary input–output table and energy flow analysis, we compiled a hybrid physical energy input and monetary output model (EIMO) to simulate the mitigation effect of subsidies reform. Results showed that removing energy subsidies would decrease ultimate demand of different economy sectors and reduce the accumulatively physical consumption of coal, oil, natural gas and electricity by 17.74, 13.47, 3.64 and 15.82 million tce, respectively. Finally we discussed relevant policy issues on China's energy subsidies reform in depth.     

Rural household energy consumption with the economic development in China: stages and characteristic indices

This paper discusses history variance and general features on rural household energy consumption with the economic development in China. Energy shortage has been a long-standing problem in rural areas of China. The average effective energy consumption was 0.46–0.54 kgce per day per household in the 1960s and 1970s. The reason for this is that the rural household energy supply mainly relies on the available amounts of local natural energy resources. The problem of cooking fuel shortage was basically solved in the early 1980s since more straw and stalks were produced due to the rapid development of agriculture. The process of energy commercialization also started from the early 1980s due to the availability of coal, fuel oil and other energy sources in the market, and the reconstruction of rural power supply network. Energy consumption was 369.8 kgce per capita with 30% of commercial energy consumption and the effective heat per capita per day was 0.64 kgce in 1995. A closer relationship was found between household energy consumption level/structure and family income along with the economic development. This paper analyzed the rural household energy consumption of three typical regions, i.e., out-of-poverty, well-off and rich regions, in terms of effective heat per capita per day, percentage of commercial energy consumption in total effective heat, electricity consumption per capita and room temperature of northern areas in winter.     

Behavioural,physical and socio-economic factors in household cooling energy consumption

As global warming continues, the current trend implies that the uptake of air conditioning in the residential sector will go up, thus potentially increasing domestic cooling energy consumption. In this context, this paper investigates the significance of behavioural, physical and socio-economic parameters on cooling energy in order to improve energy efficiency in residential buildings. It demonstrates that such factors exert a significant indirect as well as direct influence on energy use, showing that it is particularly important to understand indirect relationships. An initial study of direct factors affecting cooling energy reveals that occupant behaviour is the most significant issue (related to choices about how often and where air conditioning is used). This is broadly confirmed by path analysis, although climate is seen to be the single most significant parameter, followed by behavioural issues, key physical parameters (e.g. air conditioning type), and finally socio-economic aspects (e.g. household income).     

Evolution of urban household indirect carbon emission responsibility from an inter-sectoral perspective: A case study of Guangdong,China

Reduction of urban household indirect carbon emissions (UHICE) is important for climate change mitigation. Uncovering the evolution of UHICE from an inter-sectoral perspective helps clarify responsibilities among different sectors and improves our understanding of the mechanisms by which inter-sectoral linkages drive UHICE. In this study, an environmentally extended input-output analysis was used to examine Guangdong Province's sectoral UHICE responsibilities during 2002–2012. We investigated the evolution of key sectors and related paths using multi-temporal inter-sectoral linkage analysis and structural path analysis. Our analyses found that: (1) sectoral UHICE exhibited significant disparities, and the electricity and steam production and supply (S73), food and beverage services (S88), manufacture of metal products (S52), telecommunication and other information transmission services (S84), and transport via road (S78) sectors were the main UHICE sources; (2) from the evolution of sectors' forward and/or backward linkages, we determined 13 key sectors and 12 potential key sectors in UHICE reduction; (3) optimizing 20 key sectors' self-demand structures and improving the production efficiency in electricity and steam production and supply (S73) significantly affects UHICE reductions; and (4) except for a path's length and heterogeneity, the change of a path's UHICE contributions also determines its reduction management priority.