Renewable energy in the Lithuanian heating sector

The paper analyses the role of renewable energy sources (RES) in the Lithuanian heating sector and the existing support measures. RES consumption has been continuously growing in Lithuania. During the period of 2000–2009, RES used for heat production in the district heating sector increased more than 4 times. Wood and wood products have been the most widely used RES for heat production (RES-H). The lower prices were one of the main reasons which motivated district heating companies to switch fuel to biomass. At the same time subsidies, soft loans, EU Structural Funds for 2007–2013 and some fiscal measures, which are currently available for RES-H promotion, also have some impact on the increase of RES consumption. However, seeking to achieve a 23% national RES target, additional support measures are essential. A qualitative analysis based on the selected set of criteria and consultation with stakeholders showed that energy policy package for RES promotion in the Lithuanian heating sector could encompass the following measures: tax relieves (differentiated VAT and personal income tax breaks), subsidies, soft loans, standardization, support for research, development and demonstration. These measures are market-oriented and meet cost efficiency and low transaction costs criteria.     

Renewable energy sources in the Mexican electricity sector

This paper analyzes the role of renewable energy sources (RES) in the Mexican electricity sector in the context of the proposed renewable energy bill currently under consideration in the Mexican Congress. This paper was divided into three parts. The first part presents a chronology of institutional background related to the RES. This is followed by an analysis of the coordination and management system of the Mexican electricity sector, which can facilitate the promotion and integration of the RES without significant structural changes. Finally, the pros and cons of the renewable energy bill are analyzed in order to demonstrate the need for greater coherence between the bill and the coordination system of the sector. It is concluded that when inconsistency is eliminated, RES would strongly be promoted in Mexico.     

Renewable energy sector in Belarus: A review

Belarus (BY) faces broad needs for energy security enhancement, energy diversification, and improvements in the state of the environment. Being the 13th largest importer of natural gas for energy BY has very limited energy resources of its own. Maximum reduction of energy imports is among the strategic tasks of raising the efficiency of Belarus' economy. The task fulfillment is possible through creation of a national infrastructure conductive to increasing the share of local and renewable sources of energy (RES) in heat and power energy production.BY's geographic location has several advantages for extensive use of most of the renewable energy (RE) and bioenergy sources. However, information on existing RE sector for the second-largest landlocked country in Europe is still hardly awailable for a wider audience of researchers working in the field of economic, environmental, political, planning and social aspects of energy supply in global proportions.The review on the renewable energy sector in BY so far has tried to give the background for RES, to describe their occurrence and conditions for using them, leading up to a discussion of the role of renewable energy in current and future energy systems, depending on a path of economic transition, social values, availability, and economic rules used to judge the viability of competing solutions. To ensure a simple, comprehensible and transparent presentation of the different available options of using RE for the provision of heat and power, the individual chapters describing the various renewable energy potentials and contribution options have been similarly structured whenever possible and sensible.     

Renewable energy sector development in the Caribbean: Current trends and lessons from history

Island regions and isolated communities represent an understudied area of not only clean energy development but also of innovation. Caribbean states have for some time shown interest in developing a regional sustainable energy policy and in implementing measures which could help to protect its member states from volatile oil markets while promoting reliance on local resources. Here we examine four case studies of renewable energy advancements being made by public utility companies and independent energy companies in the Caribbean. We attempt to locate renewable energy advances in a broader historical framework of energy sector development, indicating a few policy lessons. We find that different degrees of regulatory and legislative sophistication have evolved in different islands. Islands should have specialized policy focus, contrasting the ad-hoc nature of current regional energy policy discussion. We also conduct a cost benefit analysis which shows that these early, innovative alternative energy projects show themselves to be both profitable and significant sources of emissions reduction and job creation. This lends support to the potential benefits of regional energy policy.     

Renewable energy,trade, and economic growth in the Asia-Pacific region

This paper employs panel multivariate technology to probe the impact of renewable energy and trade (imports and exports) on the output and to study the Granger causality between the mentioned variables with a sample of 15 Asia-Pacific countries for the period of 1994–2014. Short-run causality tests show bidirectional causal relationship between the output and exports and no Granger causal relationship from imports to renewable energy or the output. Moreover, long-run causality tests show bidirectional causality between the output and renewable energy, and unidirectional causality from international trade (imports and exports) to the output and renewable energy. The long-run elasticities indicate that the renewable energy consumption and trade play positive roles in economic growth. This study’s energy policy recommendation is that policy authorities should encourage the development of trade (imports and exports), which not only drives economic growth and prosperity but also accelerates the pace of renewable energy consumption.     

Renewable sources of energy and technologies in Austria: Present situation, goals and prospects

The main goal of the energy policy of the Austrian government is, beside of a more efficient use of energy, the increase of renewable sources of energy. The technical, economical and ecological aspects of renewable sources of energy and their technologies are analysed and the present situation of renewable sources of energy in Austria and its prospects are described. Of the renewable energy carriers the following resources are of importance in Austria: hydropower, firewood, biogenic energy carriers, including fuels, solar energy and ambient heat and geothermic energy.     

Renewable energy technologies for the Indian power sector: mitigation potential and operational strategies

The future economic development trajectory for India is likely to result in rapid and accelerated growth in energy demand, with attendant shortages and problems. Due to the predominance of fossil fuels in the generation mix, there are large negative environmental externalities caused by electricity generation. The power sector alone has a 40 percent contribution to the total carbon emissions. In this context, it is imperative to develop and promote alternative energy sources that can lead to sustainability of the energy–environment system. There are opportunities for renewable energy technologies under the new climate change regime as they meet the two basic conditions to be eligible for assistance under UNFCCC mechanisms: they contribute to global sustainability through GHG mitigation; and, they conform to national priorities by leading to the development of local capacities and infrastructure. This increases the importance of electricity generation from renewables. Considerable experience and capabilities exist in the country on renewable electricity technologies. But a number of techno–economic, market-related, and institutional barriers impede technology development and penetration. Although at present the contribution of renewable electricity is small, the capabilities promise the flexibility for responding to emerging economic, socio–environmental and sustainable development needs. This paper discusses the renewable and carbon market linkages and assesses mitigation potential of power sector renewable energy technologies under global environmental intervention scenarios for GHG emissions reduction. An overall energy system framework is used for assessing the future role of renewable energy in the power sector under baseline and different mitigation scenarios over a time frame of 35 years, between 2000 to 2035. The methodology uses an integrated bottom-up modelling framework. Looking into past performance trends and likely future developments, analysis results are compared with officially set targets for renewable energy. The paper also assesses the CDM investment potential for power sector renewables. It outlines specific policy interventions for overcoming the barriers and enhancing deployment of renewables for the future.     

Geology of Southeast Asia with particular reference to the South China Sea

The concentric arrangement of the Phanerozoic arc-trench systems of the western part of Southeast Asia has been previously interpreted in the light of plate tectonics as a migration of subduction zones related to the oceanic spreading centers located in the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea respectively.The Sumatra, Java, and Meratus arcs, with ages ranging from Paleozoic to the present time, were generated by spreading centers situated in the Indian Ocean, whereas the Natuna and Palawan arcs had their origin in the spreading center located in the South China Sea. The Tertiary Banda arc was generated by a spreading center in the Indian Ocean whereas the more or less Tertiary Sulawesi arc had its origin in the spreading center located in the Pacific Ocean.In the South China Sea region, the results of recent exploration drilling on the Reed Bank supports the previous concept that the intermediate shelfal region at a depth of about 2000 m represents the fragmented remains of continental crust. Oceanic crust emplaced between 32 and 17 million years (my) occupies the abyssal depths. Magnetic patterns of the basin show an east-west alignment of the spreading axis. Reconstruction by closure of this basin would place the northeastern Palawan-Mindano microcontinent against the China Shelf adjacent to the eastern Macclesfield Banks. Prior to this event, southerly directed Cretaceous and Paleogene subduction was active beneath the northern Sundaland, which already existed as an accreted crystalline core dating into the Paleozoic era.The geotectonic evolution of Southeast Asia is reconstructed with particular reference to the South China Sea Region. Several dominant basin types have been recognized on the margins of the South China Sea. These basins as a whole contain an estimated 56% or 20 billion barrels of the remaining undiscovered oil reserves in Southeast Asia.     

On the economics of hydrogen from renewable energy sources as an alternative fuel in transport sector in Austria

The core objective of this work is to analyse the possible future relevance of hydrogen from renewable energy sources in the transport sector from an economic point-of-view with special focus on Austria. The analysis is conducted in a dynamic framework until 2050.     

Renewable energy benefits with conversion of woody residues to pellets

In the frame of an Interreg IIIC Network-Operation named RegEnergy, that unites 18 partners from 11 countries of Europe, the feasibility of using the woody by-products for heating purpose in a typical Mediterranean region was investigated. Focusing on the Abruzzo Region as representative sample area, it came out that a significant amount of the above mentioned renewable energetic material is annually available as a consequence of well-consolidated and economically significant agro-industrial activities, forest maintenance and industrial wood production and transformation. In particular, it was found that the total amount of woody residues, as dry substance, are more than 700 kt/a, with 30% resulting from pruning activities related to the cultivation of about 360 km² of vineyards and 450 km² of olive-groves; these residues are concentrated in the hilly part of the region close to the Adriatic sea coast. Starting by this pleasant situation, the feasibility of a properly localized wood pellets production plant was supported by both the economic and energetic analysis. Additional suggestions related to optimal plant localization and to the best use of the woody pellets as substitute of natural gas for heating purposes were reported along with the positive impact of the whole action on the quality of the environment and on the recovery of soil fertility.     

Renewable energy in the outback of Australia

Many stations and small communities, particularly Aboriginal Communities, have switched from diesel generators to sensible Remote Area Power Supply (RAPS) systems consisting of wind and/or solar input, battery bank, inverter and generator back-up.The introduction of Synergy Power Corporation's low-wind regime turbines that can hover/reef rather than furl has allowed wind powered RAPS to penetrate markets in the desert communities that were previously considered unsuitable for wind systems. The unique reefing system is described and some interesting case studies given.Solar water pumping and solar powered microwave telecommunications have been common for the past ten years and have proved extremely reliable and have been well accepted.     

Renewable energy policy in Turkey with the new legal regulations

Since the energy crises in the 1970’s, public and private decision makers are considering how to achieve a sustainable transition from fossil fuel based energy to sustainable and clean energies - namely renewable energies. Combined with the improvement of energy efficiency and the rational use of energy, renewable energy can provide everything fossil fuels currently offer in terms of heating and cooling, electricity generation and transportation. Renewable energy technologies posses many long term benefits including energy security, job creation, business opportunities, sustainable development and prevention of global warming.Turkey’s population is growing at an annual rate of 1.04%. If Turkey uses only traditional energy sources, it simply will not have enough energy capacity for its population. Renewable energy sources have the potential to make a large contribution to Turkey’s sustainable and independent energy future.Turkey aims to utilize its energy potential, including from renewable sources in a cost-effective manner. Turkey targets the share of renewable resources in electricity generation to be at least 30% by 2023 has in its 2009 Electricity Market and Security of Supply Strategy. Positive achievements have been obtained in renewable energy development and manufacturing in Turkey over the past decade. The renewable energy related legislation has been intensified. To meet its 30% target, the current promotion mechanism for renewable sources of electricity relies on feed-in tariffs for different renewable energy sources. Large hydropower is already competitive to conventional fossil-based electricity, so feed-in tariffs in the new RE Law are set to facilitate expanding the deployment of other, less mature renewable energy technologies.     

Renewable energy policy development in the Caribbean

The Caribbean region is endowed with renewable energy resources which remain largely untapped. With an average insolation of 15-20 MJ m⁻² day⁻¹, investment in some renewable energy technologies is feasible. The major problem confronting the region is lack of financial resources. Petroleum imports continue to dominate the energy scenario except for Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados. However, increased awareness of sustainable development issues throughout the region is a major factor in support of renewable energy implementation and is a driving force for energy policy decision-making. With the necessary joint-venture partnerships and government fiscal incentives, photovoltaic technologies, wind energy and solar energy industries are poised to expand thus reducing the dependency on fossil fuel imports while preserving the environment.     

Modeling global residential sector energy demand for heating and air conditioning in the context of climate change

In this article, we assess the potential development of energy use for future residential heating and air conditioning in the context of climate change. In a reference scenario, global energy demand for heating is projected to increase until 2030 and then stabilize. In contrast, energy demand for air conditioning is projected to increase rapidly over the whole 2000–2100 period, mostly driven by income growth. The associated CO₂ emissions for both heating and cooling increase from 0.8 Gt C in 2000 to 2.2 Gt C in 2100, i.e. about 12% of total CO₂ emissions from energy use (the strongest increase occurs in Asia). The net effect of climate change on global energy use and emissions is relatively small as decreases in heating are compensated for by increases in cooling. However, impacts on heating and cooling individually are considerable in this scenario, with heating energy demand decreased by 34% worldwide by 2100 as a result of climate change, and air-conditioning energy demand increased by 72%. At the regional scale considerable impacts can be seen, particularly in South Asia, where energy demand for residential air conditioning could increase by around 50% due to climate change, compared with the situation without climate change.     

Renewable energy sources in European energy supply and interactions with emission trading

This paper presents a model-based approach, which allows to determine the optimised structure and operation of the EU-15 electricity supply under different political and economic framework conditions, with a focus on the integration of renewable energy sources for electricity generation (RES-E) in the EU-15 countries. The approach is designed to take into account the characteristics of power production from both renewable and conventional sources, including the technological and economic characteristics of existing plants as well as those of future capacity expansion options. Beyond that, fuel supply structures are modelled, as well as the international markets for power and CO₂-certificates with their restrictions. Thus, a profound evaluation of the exploitation of mid-term renewable potentials and an assessment of the market penetration of the various renewable power generation technologies under the (normative) premise of a cost-optimised evolution of the power system becomes possible. Results show that a promotion of renewable energies reduces the scarcity of CO₂-emission allowances and thus lowers marginal costs of CO₂ reduction up to 30% in 2030. Despite the higher overall costs, a diversification of the energy resource base by RES-E use is observed, as primarily natural gas and nuclear fuels are replaced.     

荷兰可再生能源政策及其实践

介绍了荷兰政府为促进可再生能源发展而制订的法律、法规、目标、实施途径和实践。荷兰可再生能源大规模开发利用始于20世纪80年代，90年代末达到高峰。但由于政策的变化导致可再生能源研究、开发、生产和利用呈现下降趋势。随着欧洲一体化进程，荷兰重新修改制定了其能源政策以重振可再生能源产业。     

Renewable ocean energy in the Western Indian Ocean

Several African countries in the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) endure insufficiencies in the power sector, including both generation and distribution. One important step towards increasing energy security and availability is to intensify the use of renewable energy sources. The access to cost-efficient hydropower is low in coastal and island regions and combinations of different renewable energy sources will play an increasingly important role. In this study the physical preconditions for renewable ocean energy are investigated, considering the specific context of the WIO countries. Global-level resource assessments and oceanographic literature and data have been compiled in an analysis of the match between technology-specific requirements for ocean energy technologies (wave power, ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), tidal barrages, tidal current turbines, and ocean current power) and the physical resources in 13 WIO regions Kenya, Seychelles, Northern Tanzania and Zanzibar, Southern Tanzania, Comoros and Mayotte, Northern-, Central-, and Southern Mozambique, Western-, Eastern-, and Southern Madagascar, Réunion, and Mauritius. The results show high potential for wave power over vast coastal stretches in southern parts of the WIO and high potential for OTEC at specific locations in Mozambique, Comoros, Réunion, and Mauritius. The potential for tidal power and ocean current power is more restricted but may be of interest at some locations. The findings are discussed in relation to currently used electricity sources and the potential for solar photovoltaic and wind power. Temporal variations in resource intensity as well as the differences between small-scale and large-scale applications are considered.     

可持续发展的奥地利能源技术

奥地利能源政策的原则是能源的可持续性,战略是发展可再生能源和提高能源效率,目标是高效低成本、供应安全、环境保护和社会和谐。