Regulatory frameworks for decentralised energy

This paper considers aspects of the current regulatory frameworks for markets and infrastructure which can inhibit the deployment of decentralised energy. The government has stated that decentralised energy can make a positive contribution to reducing the UK's carbon emissions, but recognises that at the moment the technologies face market and regulatory barriers. If it is to become a viable alternative to centralised generation, energy market design and the regulation of energy infrastructure will have to evolve to ensure that decentralised options are no longer locked out.     

Biogas plants in Denmark: successes and setbacks

With 20 centralised plants and over 35 farmscale plants, the digestion of manure and organic waste is a well established technological practice in Denmark. These plants did not emerge without a struggle. Moreover, no new centralised plants have been established since 1998 and the development of farmscale plants has slowed down. This article reviews the experimental introduction of biogas plants in Denmark since the 1970s. We argue that three factors have been important for the current status of biogas plants in Denmark. First, the Danish government applied a bottom-up strategy and stimulated interaction and learning between various social groups. Second, a dedicated social network and a long-term stimulation enabled a continuous development of biogas plants without interruptions until the late 1990s. Third, specific Danish circumstances have been beneficial, including policies for decentralised CHP, the existence of district heating systems, the implementation of energy taxes in the late 1980s and the preference of Danish farmers to cooperate in small communities. The current setback in biogas plants is mainly caused by a shift in energy and environmental policies and limited availability of organic waste.     

Design of a photovoltaic electric power system for an indian village

Photovoltaic generation and electrochemical storage of electrical power offer an attractive possibility for the electrification of a village that is normally considered “uneconomic” for electrification by the conventional REP. The modular nature of both solar cells and storage batteries make it possible to use either a centralised or a decentralised system within a village. A critical analysis of the electrical energy requirements of the village including its domestic, agricultural, community and street lighting needs and its technoeconomic aspects is therefore to be made for the most cost effective and maximum beneficial choice between (a) the centralised village energy centre or (b) highly decentralised roof top units within the village. A methodology is first developed in this paper to investigate this problem on the basis of balance of systems (BOS) cost per peak watt and is then applied to a typical village in West Bengal, India. The analysis indicates that the centralised village energy centre approach is about five times more cost-effective than the roof top approach under the assumed conditions.     

An appraisal of photovoltaic power system for rural development in context of available energy resources in Nigeria

The energy need in Nigeria is increasing rapidly, both in urban and rural sectors, as a result of rapid industrialisation and agricultural development. Though natural resources like coal, gas, hydropower, forestry, oil, etc., are available in Nigeria, energy production and the economy are, at present, largely dependent on oil. To reduce this dependence and to meet the growing energy demand, alternative sources of energy can play an important role in Nigeria. With this view, detailed analysis has been made in this paper on available energy resources in Nigeria. Based on the available data, the present situation with regard to proven resources, undiscovered estimated resources and the total projected resources in this country have been calculated. The energy demand and supply pattern have also been evaluated. Out of the different alternative sources of energy, use of solar energy through the photovoltaic power system seems to be quite attractive in meeting the energy demand in the real rural sector. In this context, an analysis has been made to estimate the different components of the photovoltaic power system for rural development in Nigeria. Three different approaches, viz. integrated centralised, discrete decentralised and roof-top approaches, have been considered. Finally, The social impact of such systems in Nigeria has also been discussed.     

Renewable energies in the EU-Accession States

The aim of this article is to discuss obstacles and success conditions for renewable energy sources in the EU-Accession States and to compare them with the framework in the EU-15. Besides the ten states which will join the EU in 2004, Bulgaria and Romania which will probably join in 2007 as well as Turkey are analysed. Most of these countries have had a century-long tradition in the utilisation of RES, primarily in biomass and hydropower. However, the communist regimes were convinced of the superiority of large-scale systems and converted the energy sectors into centralised units. Due to this dominating belief system more decentralised applications such as installations using renewable energies had to close.     

Siting analysis of farm-based centralized anaerobic digester systems for distributed generation using GIS

There is growing interest in installing anaerobic digesters (ADs) on farms to use animal wastes as a biomass resource for both economic value and environmental benefit. This potential expansion prompts the need for land suitability assessment. In this paper, a GIS model is proposed for land-suitability assessment of potential energy systems featuring an AD coupled with an energy generator. A variety of environmental and social constraints, as well as economic factors are integrated in the model to help determine the optimal sites for installing such systems. The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method is employed to estimate the factors’ weights in order to establish their relative importance in site selection. The model is then applied to Tompkins County, New York as a case study for demonstration. A siting suitability map was produced to identify those areas that are most suitable for distributed bio-energy systems using dairy manure. The results showed that this GIS-based model, by integrating both spatial data and non-spatial information, was capable of providing a broad-scale and multidimensional view on the potential bio-energy systems development in the area of study to account for environmental and social constraints as well as economic factors. The model can be modified for evaluating other biomass resources.     

Decentralised bioenergy systems: A review of opportunities and threats

Decentralised bioenergy systems are receiving increasing attention due to the potential ability to support local development, create local employment, and contribute to climate change mitigation. These issues, along with other bioenergy sustainability issues, are reviewed through eighteen international case studies with the objective of identifying opportunities and threats to decentralised bioenergy systems. The case studies were selected based on feedstock type, bioenergy type, production capacity, synergistic alliances, ownership structure and physical locations. This variation was used to provide a basis for evaluating opportunities and threats from different contexts. Commercial viability remains the primary concern for the sustainability of decentralised bioenergy systems. There are, however, opportunities for compounding benefits through integrating small scale decentralised bioenergy systems with other production systems. Integrated production, including closed loop models, allow waste materials from one process to be used as inputs in other production processes, and thereby increasing economic, social and environmental outcomes. Synergistic opportunities along the bioenergy production chain, which include feedstock production, bioenergy marketing and distribution could also be exploited by communities and other investors to minimise decentralised production risk.     

Investigation of China's bio-energy industry development modes based on a SWOT–PEST model

Today more than ever before, the issues of energy shortage, global warming and climate change bound with greenhouse effect are dominating the international agenda, causing an increased interest in the renewable and alternative energy sector. With the development of the Chinese economy and scientific technology, the contradiction between energy, environment and economic growth has become ever-increasingly evident. Bio-energy, as an emerging and promising energy type, is of pretty importance for China's energy development from the strategic perspective. In this paper, the strategic analysis tools stemming from the SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats)–PEST (political, economic, social and technological) model have been adopted to explore the development modes of China's bio-energy industry. Afterwards, on the basis of the mode analysis, several corresponding recommendations have been put forward in an attempt to achieve the rapid and sound development of China's bio-energy industry.     

Rural area power supply in Nigeria: A cost comparison of the photovoltaic, diesel/gasoline generator and grid utility options

A large proportion of the population of Nigeria reside in the rural communities. In this work, the financial costs of providing centralized (photovoltaic) PV generating system of various capacities—to satisfy different load requirements—in a remote village in Nigeria is compared with the cost of grid extension over a distance of 1.8 km. Comparison is also made with the centralised diesel generator power supply option. In addition, the costs of decentralised PV home systems are compared with those of decentralised gasoline generator systems. For all the systems, the initial capital costs and the life cycle costs over a 20-year life cycle are reported. Sensitivity analysis was performed using variations in module costs, diesel fuel prices and grid extension distance. The results suggest that PV has a remarkable potential as a cost-effective option for low-power electrical energy supply to the rural communities in the country.     

Prospects for and barriers to domestic micro-generation: A United Kingdom perspective

Approximately 38% of current UK greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to the energy supply sector. Losses in the current electricity supply system amount to around 65% of the primary energy input, mainly due to heat wasted during centralised production. Micro-generation and other decentralised technologies have the potential to dramatically reduce these losses because, when fossil fuels are used, the heat generated by localised electricity production can be captured and utilised for space and water heating. Heat and electricity can also be produced locally by renewable sources. Prospects and barriers to domestic micro-generation in the UK are outlined, with reference to the process of technological innovation, energy policy options, and the current status of the micro-generation industry. Requirements for the main technology options, typical energy outputs, costs to consumers, and numbers of installed systems are given where data is available. It is concluded that while micro-generation has the potential to contribute favourably to energy supply, there remain substantial barriers to a significant rise in the use of micro-generation in the UK.     

我国生物质能资源与利用

我国生物质资源丰富,产量巨大,2004年我国生物质能合计总量为306.48Mtce,为生物质能的开发利用提供了丰富的原料.通过生物质的热化学转化技术,可生产可燃气体和液体燃料.生物质能的开发利用,对于我国能源结构调整、能源安全、环境保护具有重要意义.     

Decentralised systems and fuel poverty: Are there any links or risks?

This paper considers the possible links between the development of decentralised or distributed energy systems and the problem of fuel poverty in the UK. The discussion takes on board that decentralised energy systems can take many different forms, in the range of potential technologies that can be used for the local microgeneration of electricity and heat and in the range of ways in which the installation, ownership, operation, networking and maintenance of these technologies can be organised [Walker, G., Cass, N., 2007. Carbon reduction, ‘the public’ and renewable energy: engaging with sociotechnical configurations. Area 39(4), 458–469; Watson, J., Sauter, R., Bahaj, B., James, A., Myers, L., Wing, R., 2006. Unlocking the Power House: Policy and System Change for Domestic Microgeneration in the UK. SPRU, Brighton]. The focus is on housing and, in particular, on those forms of housing occupied by social groups vulnerable to fuel poverty. Both potential negative links (or risks) and positive links between decentralised generation and fuel poverty are considered. As this is a new area, there is comparatively little literature to draw on and there are significant gaps in knowledge, so some of the discussion is necessarily rather speculative.     

Bio-energy in the Baltic States: Current policy and future development

The rapid economic growth in the Baltic States requires significant alterations in their energy sectors. This paper describes current status and specific features of the energy systems in the Baltic States, and in particular discusses the role of the renewable energy sources in the primary energy supply and energy transformation sector of these countries. The structure of the energy sectors inherited from the Former Soviet Union and constructed through several decades was inappropriate in terms of size of these countries and their access to primary energy. Based on common principles changes in the primary energy supply during the period 1990–2003 in each country are analysed. This paper presents analysis of the main driving forces for future usage of bio-energy, such as sound general energy policy in the Baltic States, favourable legislative framework, implementation of the EU Directives and corresponding National Programs. The paper focuses on comparison of existing potential for energy production from feasible renewable energy sources, trends of bio-energy production and the role of renewable energy sources for the future energy needs in the Baltic States. Due to existence of some limiting factors additional energy policy measures encouraging future development of bio-energy production in the region are necessary.     

Innovation diffusion,public policy,and local initiative: The case of wood-fuelled district heating systems in Austria

This paper comprises a three-level study on wood fuel utilisation for district heating in Austria. First, we discuss the framework conditions for the diffusion in Austria of rural biomass district heating (BDH) plants, an energy conversion plant type which constituted a real innovation in the 1980s. Second, we describe the diffusion of BDH systems in the Austrian province of Vorarlberg, where a variety of biomass energy systems have been promoted by capital grants since 1993, as part of a dedicated bioenergy promotion programme. Third, the paper contains a case study of a 2 MW BDH plant put into operation in 2000 in Rankweil, a small market town located in Vorarlberg on the east side of the Rhine Valley. Analysis of the plant history reveals that an oversupply of forest residues, caused by devastating storms and forest diseases, together with the more general need to rejuvenate severely over-aged forest stands, created strong incentives to form local actor networks and initiatives to push for the adoption and diffusion of centralised biomass heating systems in rural areas. In addition, intensive lobbying and strong political and public support were necessary to successfully combat interventions by both the natural gas industry and influential gas-supplied industrial enterprises. Finally, a capital grant of 45% of eligible investment costs as well as careful capacity expansion and other planning significantly improved and safeguarded the economic viability of the plant. These considerations, combined with a dedicated forest-restructuring programme, render the plant one of the most successful integrated forestry and BDH projects in Vorarlberg, and an important model for later adopters. Overall, the analysis sheds some light on the role of public policy, local actors, and economic and other framework conditions on the market diffusion dynamics of BDH in Austria.     

Heat distribution and the future competitiveness of district heating

The competitiveness of present and future district heating systems can be at risk when residential and service sector heat demands are expected to decrease in the future. In this study, the future competitiveness of district heating has been examined by an in depth analysis of the distribution capital cost at various city characteristics, city sizes, and heat demands. Hereby, this study explores an important market condition often neglected or badly recognised in traditional comparisons between centralised and decentralised heat supply.     

Leading global energy and environmental transformation: Unified ASEAN biomass-based bio-energy system incorporating the clean development mechanism

In recent years, the ten member countries in the Association of Southeast Asia Nations (ASEAN) have experienced high economic growth and, in tandem, a substantial increment in energy usage and demand. Consequently, they are now under intense pressure to secure reliable energy supplies to keep up with their growth rate. Fossil fuels remain the primary source of energy for the ASEAN countries, due to economic and physical considerations. This situation has led to unrestrained emissions of greenhouse gases to the environment and thus effectively contributes to global climate change. The abundant supply of biomass from their tropical environmental conditions offers great potential for ASEAN countries to achieve self-reliance in energy supplies. This fact can simultaneously transform into the main driving force behind combating global climate change, which is associated with the usage of fossil fuels. This research article explores the potential and advantages for ASEAN investment in biomass-based bio-energy supply, processing and distribution network with an emphasis on regional collaborations. It also investigates the implementation and operational challenges in terms of political, economic and technical factors for the cross-border energy scheme. Reliance of ASEAN countries on the clean development mechanism (CDM) to address most of the impediments in developing the project is also under scrutiny. Unified co-operation among ASEAN countries in integrating biomass-based bio-energy systems and utilising the clean development mechanism (CDM) as the common effort could serve as the prime example for regional partnerships in achieving sustainable development for the energy and environmental sector in the future.     

Small distributed generation versus centralised supply: a social cost–benefit analysis in the residential and service sectors

This paper aims at measuring the social benefits of small CHP distributed generation (DG) in the residential and service sectors. We do this by comparing the social costs of decentralised and centralised supplies, simulating “ideal” situations in which any source of allocative inefficiencies is eliminated. This comparison focuses on assessing internal and external costs. The internal costs are calculated by simulating the optimal prices of the electricity and gas inputs. The external costs are estimated by using and elaborating the results of the dissemination process of the ExternE project, one of the most recent and accurate methodologies in this field. The analysis takes into account the main sources of uncertainty about the parameter values, including uncertainty about external cost estimations. Despite these sources of uncertainty, the paper concludes that centralised supply is still preferable to small DG. In fact, the overall range of DG social competitiveness is restricted, even considering further remarkable improvements in DG electrical efficiency and investment costs. The results are particularly unfavourable for the residential sector, whereas, in the service sector, the performance of DG technologies is slightly better.     

Photovoltaic Power Generation: a 1987 Review

Over the last few years photovoltaics has become a mature product. In all countries around the world, photovoltaic consumer products and remote power systems have been sold in increasing numbers representing a total of 100 MW. Generally speaking, photovoltaics is currently the cheapest power source up to an installed capacity of a few kW. Many rural needs for lighting, telecommunication, water and health care are in that power range. Therefore, applications and use of photovoltaic systems have a particular appeal for developing countries. But also in industrialised countries, photovoltaics is a key option for decentralised power generation.

In the long term photovoltaic technology will continue to become cheaper. Probably by the turn of the century photovoltaic power generation will become an option for centralised electricity generation as well.     

Chinese university students’ knowledge and attitudes regarding forest bio-energy

The present study examines Chinese university students’ attitudes and knowledge regarding energy, specifically towards forest bio-energy in their country. The study was based on opinions of students from Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University (NWAFU) in China and it was conducted using a questionnaire completed by 441 students. The students’ attitudes are seen as highly relevant because they are considered as both potential consumers and possible experts in the field of bio-energy. Their activities influence how the future energy markets will likely develop. The results revealed various interesting facets of the students’ views regarding energy usage. Of particular interest is the students’ positive attitude towards renewable energy in general, but slightly less positive towards forest bio-energy. However, the respondents expected to receive more information and knowledge about renewable energy and forest bio-energy. Moreover, it can be concluded that the dissemination of knowledge through different sources (e.g. teaching in school, information available on the Internet and other media channels) is an increasingly important aspect regarding energy issues. The results of this study can provide information of the perceptions of young educated people on energy policy issues and thus serve political decision-making processes for the future options concerning the development of forest bio-energy in China. Finally, the outcome of this study indicates that further environmental and energy education in China is urgently needed.     

Governance of the emerging bio-energy markets

Despite its promising prospects, a growing global bio-energy market may have sustainability risks as well. Governing this market with respect to installing safeguards to ensure sustainable biomass production might reduce these risks. Therefore, proposals for governance systems for bio-energy are discussed in this article. The proposals are based on comparative case study research on the governance of comparable commodities. By assessing the governance system of global coffee trade, fair trade coffee, the global and the EU sugar market and Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) wood, strong and weak points of governance systems for commodities are discerned. FSC is selected as the best performing case study and serves as the proposal's basis. FSC's weaknesses are minimized by, among others, using the lessons learned from the other case studies. This results in a system consisting of two pillars, a bio-energy labelling organization (BLO) and a United Nations Agreement on Bio-energy (UNAB). Although consulted experts in the research process are critical about this system they do suggest several conditions a governance system for bio-energy should meet in order to be effective, such as a facilitative government, professional monitoring and using progressive certification combined with price premiums. These conditions have been taken into account in the final proposal.