Formulation and Copping Temperature Effects on Beef Frankfurters

Frankfurters were manufactured using four fat and added water (AW) formulations (10% fat/30% AW; 15%/25%; 20%/20%; 30%/10%) and processed at chopping temperatures 9, 12, or 15°C. The batters were stuffed into cellulose casings, thermally processed, chilled and vacuum-packaged. Frankfurters were analyzed for proximate composition, textural properties and purge. No differences occurred among treatments for processing yield (89.8%± 1.83). Frankfurters chopped to 12°C had the highest (P < 0.05) Kramer peak force values. As expected, purge increased in all treatments as storage time increased (P < 0.05). As AW increased, hardness and cohesiveness decreased and purge increased. Water level and fat reduction were the most critical factors affecting quality.     

Low-Fat, High-Moisture Frankfurters: Effects of Temperature and Water during Extended Mixing

Frankfurters containing 15% fat and 25% added water were produced using conventional practice or minced meat batters were mixed for 30 min (extended mixing, EM) at 2 or 16°C with all or 30% of the formulation water. EM had minimal effects on yield, purge, and texture. Products were darker and less yellow than non-EM frankfurters. The lower mixing temperature resulted in firmer (P < 0.05) frankfurters. However, mixing temperature did not affect other properties. Time of water addition affected most properties. Frankfurters from treatments mixed with 100% of formulation water were firmer, darker, redder, less yellow, and required more extension to fracture.     

Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory and physiochemical quality of frankfurters

The sensory and physiochemical properties of frankfurters with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty frankfurter formulations were produced with varying concentrations of fat (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w/w) and salt (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3% w/w). Frankfurters were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n=25) evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale. Salt levels below 1.5% were shown to have a negative effect on consumer acceptability, with 2.5% salt concentration being the most accepted (P<0.001) by consumers. However, frankfurters containing the lower fat levels 10% and 15% fat with higher salt levels (2.5-3%) were significantly the most acceptable variants to consumers. Samples containing less fat and salt were found to be tougher, less juicy and had greater cooking losses. Thus salt perception is very important for consumer acceptability, but fat levels can be potentially reduced without significantly affecting overall acceptability.     

Low-fat Frankfurters with Elevated Levels of Water and Oleic Acid

The effects of simultaneous incorporation of maximum allowable levels of water and high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) on frankfurter properties were investigated. The formulation changes generally had little effect on processing yield. Frankfurters formulated with HOSO were 180-241% higher in the ratio of total monounsaturated fatty acids to total saturated fatty acids when compared to control products with similar total fat levels. Consumer-panel sensory data and instrumental texture profile data indicated that low-fat (14-16%), high-water, HOSO frankfurters- were as acceptable as control frankfurters with 28% fat (all-animal fat) and did not have the texture problems observed previously with low-fat, HOSO frankfurters without extra added water.     

Effect of preinoculation growth media and fat levels on thermal inactivation of a serotype 4b strain of Listeria monocytogenes in frankfurter slurries

Preinoculation growth conditions and fat levels were evaluated for effects on the heat resistance of Listeria monocytogenes strain MFS 102 in formulated frankfurter slurries and on frankfurter surfaces. Comparison of linear inactivation rates (D-values) for cells heated in frankfurter slurry showed that growth conditions were significant (P<0.05) factors affecting subsequent thermal resistance. The average D(60 degrees C)-values for the five preinoculation growth media tested from most resistant to least heat resistant were: tryptic soy broth with 0.6% yeast extract (TSBYE) (2.2 min) and 8.5% fat slurry (2.2 min), followed by 23% fat slurry (1.7 min) and 11% fat slurry (1.7 min), and then TSYBE with quaternary ammonium compounds added (TSBYE+Q) (1 min). The fat level in the frankfurter heating media also had a significant (P<0.05) effect on the thermal death rate of L. monocytogenes. Cells heated in 8.5% fat slurry had a significantly higher (P<0.05) D(60 degrees C)-value (2.2 min) than those heated in 11% fat (1.0 min) and 23% fat slurry (0.9 min). Growth media (TSBYE, 8.5% fat slurry, and TSBYE+Q), and fat level (15% and 20%), however, were not significant factors (P>0.05) affecting thermal inactivation rates on frankfurter surfaces. Heat inactivation rates were consistently higher on frankfurter surfaces compared to similar treatments done in frankfurter slurry. On frankfurter surfaces, a 2.3- to 5.1-log(10) reduction was achieved after 15 min depending on frankfurter surface type. The time necessary to achieve a 3-log(10) reduction using post-processing pasteurization of frankfurters in a hot water-bath at 60 degrees C almost doubled for cells grown in TSBYE and heated in 23% fat frankfurter slurry (19.6 min) versus cells grown and heated in 8.5% fat frankfurter slurry (10.8 min).     

Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory and physiochemical quality of frankfurters

The sensory and physiochemical properties of frankfurters with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty frankfurter formulations were produced with varying concentrations of fat (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w/w) and salt (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3% w/w). Frankfurters were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n = 25) evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale. Salt levels below 1.5% were shown to have a negative effect on consumer acceptability, with 2.5% salt concentration being the most accepted (P < 0.001) by consumers. However, frankfurters containing the lower fat levels 10% and 15% fat with higher salt levels (2.5–3%) were significantly the most acceptable variants to consumers. Samples containing less fat and salt were found to be tougher, less juicy and had greater cooking losses. Thus salt perception is very important for consumer acceptability, but fat levels can be potentially reduced without significantly affecting overall acceptability.     

Potato Starch and Flour in Frankfurters: Effect on Chemical and Sensory Properties, and Total Plate Counts

Potato starch and flour were examined as possible constituents in frankfurter formulations. Frankfurters manufactured with 3% potato starch or 1.5% potato starch plus 1.5% potato flour in place of 3% wheat flour normally used as a binder, and stored at 4–5°C for 28 days did not differ significantly in percent shrink, water, protein, fat, ash or salt. Residual nitrite levels decreased during the storage period. Total plate counts reflect residual nitrite levels since the frankfurters (3% starch) with the lowest nitrite concentration also had the greatest number of bacteria (6.4 × 10⁶/g) on day 28. Frankfurters formulated with 1.5% potato starch plus 1.5% potato flour were rated more tender and more juicy than those made with 3% potato starch (P≤0.05 and P≤0.01) and 3% wheat flour (P≤0.01 and P≤0.01), respectively. Fresh potato starch and wheat flour franks did not differ from each other in either characteristic but after one week's storage the potato starch samples were rated more tender (P≤0.05) and more juicy (P≤0.01). Less force was required to shear the frankfurters formulated with 3% potato starch.     

Cure Levels, Processing Methods and Meat Source Effects on Low-fat Frankfurters

Frankfurters were manufactured from lean meats (100% beef and 50:50 beef-pork) to contain reduced levels of fat (about 1.3%). A curing solutibn was added to yield 160% of fresh meat weight. Three processing methods, coarse ground tumbled, fine ground tumbled and fine ground emulsified were used. All products were cooked in live steam to 71°C internal temperature. Product yields, penetrometer values, color, chemical composition, caloric content and added water were evaluated. Emulsified frankfurters from 50:50 beef-pork mixtures at 160% cure had texture similar to conventional product as well as increased (P<0.05) yields, acceptable color and 74% fewer calories.     

Effect of tomato paste and nitrite level on processing and quality characteristics of frankfurters

Fourteen treatments of frankfurters (18% fat) were produced with two levels of sodium nitrite, 0 and 150mg/kg (0.015%), and seven levels (0%,2%,6%,8%,12% and 16%) of tomato paste with 12% soluble solids The higher the tomato paste level the higher the preference of consumers for frankfurters based on their colour. Frankfurters with 16% tomato paste had a sour taste while those with 12% tomato paste were the most acceptable. In a 2nd experiment three treatments of frankfurters (18% fat) were produced with 0, 50 and 100mg/kg of sodium nitrite and 12% tomato paste and a fourth (control) with only 150mg/kg sodium nitrite. Treatments with 12% tomato paste had lower (p<0.05) pH values and residual nitrite, and higher (p<0.05) thiobarbituric acid values, lightness and yellowness than control. Frankfurters with reduced levels of sodium nitrite (50 and 100mg/kg) and 12% tomato paste had the highest (p<0.05) redness. Storage time affected (p<0.05) all quality attributes. The nitrites added to frankfurters can be reduced from 150mg/kg to 100mg/kg in combination with 12% tomato paste without any negative effect on the quality of the product.     

Textural Properties of Chicken Frankfurters with Added Collagen Fibers

Chicken frankfurters made with 0, 2, 4, 6, 8% added collagen fibers and 10, 15, 20, 25, 30% added water were evaluated for textural differences using a torsion test and sensory texture profile analysis. Frankfurters with high amounts of added water and low amounts of collagen fibers had lower shear stress values. Sensory analysis indicated that both collagen fibers and added water had significant influences (P<0.05) on hardness, springiness and juiciness. The addition of collagen fibers resulted in harder, springier, and less juicy frankfurters. Added water resulted in softer, less springy and juicier frankfurters. Response surface methodology demonstrated that for 2% added collagen, the optimum added water was ～20%.     

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF LOW-FAT, HIGH-ADDED WATER BEEF SAUSAGE EXTENDED WITH COMMON BEAN FLOUR

Beef sausages extended with common bean flour were manufactured using 5 levels of fat and added water (AW) (25% fat /5% AW; 20% fat/10% AW; 15% fat /15% AW; 10% fat/20% AW and 5% fat 25% AW). Decreasing in fat levels with a simultaneous increase in the amount of added water did not affect (P>0.05) pH and ash content, but decreased cooking yields and increased expressible moisture. The lowest L* (lightness) values (p < 0.05) was recorded for the 25% fat/5% AW formulation. High-fat, low-added water batter required more extrusion shear stress than low-fat, high-added water batter. Beef sausage textural characteristics were reduced by replacing added water by fat.     

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF MEAT BATTERS AND FRANKFURTERS CONTAINING WHEAT GERM PROTEIN FLOUR1

Frankfurters were extended with wheat germ protein flour (WGPF) at 3.5, 5.0. and 7.0%. Water added during formulation was increased by 2% for every 1% of WGPF added. Batters containing WGPF had higher pH and adhesiveness values. Viscosities of the batters were not affected by addition of WGPF. Batters containing WGPF had lower cooking losses, and lower percent water and fat separated. Positive effects, such as lower cooking losses, higher processing yields and lower percent fat, were not consistent at levels of WGPF beyond 3.5%, probably because of higher levels of added water. Total yields of the samples containing WGPF were higher than those of control samples. No differences were observed in protein and amino acid contents of samples. Lower fat content was found in samples extended with 7.0% WGPF. Frankfurters containing WGPF had lower shear force and firmness values. Differences in color of frankfurters were also observed.     

Preparation of surimi-like extract from beef hearts and its utilisation in frankfurters

Surimi-like material was prepared from beef heart and evaluated in commercial frankfurter (30% fat) recipes at levels of 3, 7 10 and 15% by weight replacing lean meat. The addition of the heart surimi at a 15% level reduced (p < 0.05) cook loss compared with the control (6.4% vs 7.5%). Shear force measurements on frankfurters showed that the control had the highest value (20.4 N(-1) g) and the 15% surimi treatment the lowest (p < 0.05) value (13.9 N(-1) g). Correspondingly, sensory analysis indicated that as the surimi-type material was added the tenderness increased (p < 0.05). Panellists found no off-flavours and all the treatments scored similarly to the control in terms of overall flavour. In terms of 'overall acceptability' panellists found treatments containing 7 and 10% heart surimi were preferable to the control. Surimi-type material from hearts can be used in frankfurter formulations up to 15% without impairing texture or flavour.     

EFFECT OF CARRAGEENAN ON PROCESSING AND QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW-FAT FRANKFURTERS

Three types of carrageenan (K, I, K+I) × 4 levels (0, 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0%) were evaluated with a complete factorial design to characterize the effect of carrageenans on processing and quality characteristics of low-fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% protein). l-Carrageenan at 0.5–1.0% level appeared to be more beneficial for the production of low-fat frankfurters. It reduced (P<0.05) the hardness of the skin and contributed to a softer (P<0.05) product and higher overall acceptability. Low-fat frankfurters (9% fat) manufactured with I-carrageenan (IC) or in combination with finely ground toasted bread (TB), isolated soy protein (ISP) and pork skin (PSK), were compared to high-fat (27% fat, 11% protein) and to low-fat (9% fat, 13% protein) control frankfurters prepared with 3.5% potato starch (PS), as well as with commercial frankfurters (25% fat, 11.6% protein, 4.5% starch). Frankfurters with IC had higher (P<0.05) moisture, softer (P<0.05) skin and the highest (P<0.05) separation of gelatin. However, textural properties and overall acceptability were similar (P>0.05) to commercial and high-fat control frankfurters. Addition of TB had no significant effect. Use of ISP and PSK improved (P<0.05) the water-binding capacity but negatively affected the overall acceptability of frankfurters.     

PROCESSING CHARACTERISTICS AND YIELD OF PORK FRANKFURTERS MANUFACTURED FROM GILTS ADMINISTERED EXOGENOUS PORCINE SOMATOTROPIN

Eighteen gilts (75 kg) were injected daily with 0, 2.5, or 5 mg of porcine somatotropin (pST) for either 30 or 31 days prior to slaughter to examine the effects of dose of pST administration to swine on processing characteristics of frankfurters manufactured from pork. Frankfurters were manufactured from New York shoulders (NAMP #404) and formulated with fat from the same carcass to a final product target of 22% fat and 10% added water. Frankfurters from pST- treated gilts had lower smokehouse yields (0.9% decrease; P <.005) and greater shear force peak height (35.4% increase; P < 0.05) compared with the controls. The increased shear force required for skin failure of frankfurters manufactured from pork from pST-treated pigs was not readily explained by other differences due to treatment (e.g., cooking stability, batter proximate composition or salt soluble protein content; all P > 0.05)     

EFFECTS OF AN AUTOLYZED YEAST ON PHYSICAL AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF FRANKFURTERS

Three experiments were conducted to determine effects of autolyzed yeast on frankfurter firmness, flavor, and yields. Smokehouse yields of laboratory prepared frankfurters (Experiment #1) were not affected (P < 0.05) by addition of autolyzed yeast (1%). Commercially produced frankfurters containing 0%, 1.0%, or 1.5% yeast (Experiment #2) or 0%, 0.75% or 1.0% yeast (Experiment #3) were subjected to sensory and yield evaluations. Frankfurters from Experiment #2, with 1% autolyzed yeast were more firm (P < .10) than control frankfurters. Frankfurters from Experiment #3 with 0.75% and 1.0% autolyzed yeast were more firm (P < .01, P < .10) than controls. Vacuum packaged frankfurters containing yeast (Experiments #2 and #3), held 2, 4, or 6 weeks at 2–5°C, had less purge than their respective controls. Autolyzed yeast appeaers to enhance frankfurter flavor and firmness while reducing purge in vacuum packaged product.     

Organoleptic and nutritional evaluation of wheat breads supplemented with soybean and barley flour

Supplementations of soy (full fat and defatted) and barley flours to wheat flours at 5, 10, 15 and 20% levels were carried out to test the effects on organoleptic and nutritional evaluation of the supplemented bread. Additions of 15% barley flour, 10% soy flour (full fat and defatted), 15% barley plus full fat soy flour and 15% barley plus defatted soy flour to wheat flour produced acceptable breads. However, substitution of soy (full fat and defatted) and barley flours to wheat flour separately and in combinations at 20% levels did not produce organoleptically acceptable bread. Various nutritional parameters, such as protein, fat, total lysine, protein digestibility (in vitro), sugars, starch digestibility (in vitro), total and available minerals, antinutrients, dietary fibre and β-glucan were determined in supplemented and control bread. Increasing the level of substitution from 5 to 10% of full fat and defatted soy flour to wheat flour significantly (P<0.05) increased protein (from 12.1 to 13.7 and 12.4 to 13.8%), lysine (from 2.74 to 3.02 and 2.76–3.05 mg/100 g protein) and total calcium (from 70.2 to 81.4 and 71.9–81.8 mg/100 g) contents. However, there was also an increase in phytic acid (238–260 and 233–253 mg/100 g), polyphenol (324–331 and 321–329 mg/100 g) and trypsin inhibitor activity (193–204 and 193–198 TIU/g). When barley flour was substituted separately, and in combinations, with full fat and defatted soy flour up to 15%, this significantly increased the contents of protein, total lysine, dietary fibre and β-glucan. It may be concluded that breads supplemented with barley and defatted soy flour, up to a 15% level, are organoleptically and nutritionally acceptable.     

Characteristics and nutritional value of biscuits fortified with debittered salmon (Salmo salar) frame hydrolysate

Effect of debittered salmon frame hydrolysate (DSFH) at various levels (0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 g/100 g) on physicochemical, textural, sensory and nutritional properties of biscuits was investigated. The highest thickness was obtained for the sample with 25 g/100 g DSFH (P < 0.05). There was no difference in diameter among all the biscuit samples (P > 0.05). The samples added with DSFH had lower weight, water activity and moisture content than the control (CONT, without DSFH) (P < 0.05). DSFH at 15 g/100 g showed no detrimental effect on sensory properties of resulting biscuits (DSFH-15). The DSFH-15 biscuit showed reduction in cutting force and fracturability. Scanning electron microscopic and cross-sectional images showed that DSFH-15 biscuit had more porous structure, compared to the CONT. The biscuits fortified with 15 g/100 g DSFH had higher protein but had lower energy value, fat and carbohydrate content than the CONT.     

Physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters as affected by walnut and fat content

This study evaluates the physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters with 25% added walnut (WF) versus low-fat frankfurters (6% pork fat) (LF) and traditional frankfurters (18% pork fat) (NF). Results reveal that cooking losses were unaffected (p ? 0.05) by the formulation of frankfurters. The addition of walnut led to higher (p < 0.05) redness and yellowness values, while colour parameters did not differ significantly between LF and NF sausages. Frankfurters with added walnut (WF) presented higher (p < 0.05) hardness and chewiness values than LF and NF frankfurters. Differences in composition were also accompanied by changes in the microstructure of the gel/emulsions. Frankfurters with added walnut presented a flavour significantly different from meat and scored lower (p < 0.05) on texture preferences. However, all frankfurters scored the same for overall acceptability.