Shrinkage evaluation in ductile iron as influenced by mould media and inoculant type

Abstract

The present work was undertaken in hypereutectic ductile irons, to simultaneously study cooling curves, specimen contraction curves, microstructures and shrinkage tendencies as a function of inoculant selection and mould rigidity. Specific equipment was developed for simultaneous recording of cooling and contraction curves. The highest level of both concentrated and total shrinkage was recorded on the green sand mould system, where a much higher level of the initial eutectic expansion was observed, as compared to furan resin moulds. It was found that the Ca,Ce,S,O–FeSi inoculation gives the highest nodule count and a unique wide distribution of nodules sizes (large and small size nodules, in a peculiar ratio), as well as lower tendency to shrinkage formation. Also, the strongest graphitising effect before the start of eutectic solidification and more prolonged graphitising throughout the end of eutectic freezing characterise were observed with this complex inoculant system in addition to its peculiar action on minimising the shrinkage tendency of ductile irons.     

In Situ fracture observation and fracture toughness analysis of pearlitic graphite cast irons with different nodularity

Effects of microstructural modification and microfracture mechanisms on fracture toughness of pearlitic graphite cast irons with different nodularity were investigated by in situ observation of microfracture process. Six pearlitic graphite cast irons were fabricated by adding a small amount of Mg as a nodularizing element for graphite, and their microstructures including pearlite, ferrite, graphite, and eutectic carbide were analyzed. Most of ferrites were observed in a layer shape around graphites because of carbon-depleted zones formed near graphites. As the nodularity and nodule count increased, fracture toughness linearly increased in the cast irons except the iron containing many fine graphites. According to in situ observation of microfracture process, cracks initiated at nodular graphites and carbides even at a small load, and then propagated readily through the adjacent graphites or carbides, thereby resulting in the lowest fracture toughness. The cast iron having widely spaced graphites and ferrite layers thickly formed around graphites showed the highest fracture toughness because of the blocking of crack propagation by ductile ferrite layers and the crack blunting and deflection by graphites, which was also confirmed by the R-curve analysis.     

球墨铸铁缩松分析计算模型的建立

用系列试验铸件研究了主要工艺因素(碳当量、孕育量以及铸件模数)对球墨铸铁件缩松产生的影响规律。结果表明,在试验选择的范围内,随着碳当量增大、孕育量增加,缩松面积率减小;对亚共晶和共晶成分的球铁,模数的减小会导致缩松面积率的增大;对过共晶球铁,缩松面积率随模数增大而减小。通过对试验数据的回归分析,建立了球墨铸铁缩松面积率计算模型。为球墨铸铁缩松的预测模拟计算提供了依据。     

Effect of nodularity on mechanical properties and fracture of ferritic spheroidal graphite iron

Ferritic spheroidal graphite irons with nodularity from 72% to 96% were prepared. The relationship between the nodularity and the mechanical properties of the ferritic spheroidal graphite iron was investigated. The effect of nodularity on the mechanical properties and tensile fracture of the cast iron were studied. Results showed that the tensile strength Rm, yield strength R_(p0.2), elongation to failure A_5, and impact energy KV_2 of the cast iron had a good linear relationship with its nodularity. Nodularity and annealing treatment would obviously affect the fracture characteristics of ferritic spheroidal graphite iron. The annealed ferritic spheroidal graphite iron with 93% nodularity showed a completely ductile rupture. With the decrease of nodularity from 93% to 72%, the cleavage fracture area ratio increased gradually from 0% to 8.3%. Compared with as-cast ferritic spheroidal graphite iron, annealing treatment reduced the cleavage fracture area of the ferritic spheroidal graphite iron.     

Understanding compacted graphite iron solidification through interrupted solidification experiments

While the manufacture of compacted graphite (CG) iron castings has seen significant expansion over the recent years, the growth of CG during iron solidification is still not fully understood. In this work, effort was expanded to experimentally reveal the evolution of graphite shape during early solidification and its relationship to the solid fraction. To this purpose, interrupted solidification experiments were carried out on hypereutectic irons with three magnesium levels. The graphite shape factors were measured and analysed as a function of chemical composition and solid fraction. Scanning electron microscopy was carried out to establish the fraction of solid at which the transition from spheroidal graphite (SG) to CG occurs. It was confirmed that solidification started with the development of SG for all CG irons. The SG-to-CG transition was considered to occur when the SG developed a tail (tadpole graphite). The findings were integrated in previous knowledge to attempt an understanding of the solidification of CG iron.     

Eutectic solidification mode of spheroidal graphite cast iron and graphitization

The shrinkage and chilling tendency of spheroidal graphite (abbreviated SG) cast iron is much greater than that of the flake graphite cast iron in spite of its higher amount of C and Si contents. Why? The main reason should be the difference in their graphitization during the eutectic solidification. In this paper, we discuss the difference in the solidification mechanism of both cast irons for solving these problems using unidirectional solidification and the cooling curves of the spheroidal graphite cast iron. The eutectic solidification rate of the SG cast iron is controlled by the diffusion of carbon through the austenite shell, and the final thickness is 1.4 times the radius of the SG, therefore, the reduction of the SG size, namely, the increase in the number, is the main solution of these problems.     

Numerical simulation of microstructure evolution on near eutectic spheroidal graphite cast iron

A multiphase cellular automaton model was developed to simulate microstructure evolution of near eutectic spheroidal graphite cast iron (SGI) during its solidification process, and both dendritic austenite and spheroidal graphite growth models were adopted. To deduce the mesh anisotropy of cellular automaton method, the composition averaging and geometrical parameter were introduced to simulate the spheroidal graphite growth. Solute balance method and decentered square algorithms were employed to simulate austenite dendrites growth with different crystallographic orientations. The simulated results indicate that the graphite nodule grows in a spherical morphology when the surrounding environment of a single graphite nodule is same. However, for two adjacent graphite nodules, the environment is different. The higher the carbon concentration, the faster the growth of graphite. By comparison with experimental results, it is found that the microstructure evolution of near eutectic spheroidal graphite cast iron during solidification process can be reproduced quantitatively by numerical simulation with this model.     

Influence of cooling rate and antimony addition content on graphite morphology and mechanical properties of a ductile iron

Cooling rate and inoculation practice can greatly affect the graphite morphology of ductile irons.In the present research,the effects of the cooling rate and antimony addition on the graphite morpholog...     

Effect of pouring temperature,composition, mould strength and metal flow resistance on shrinkage cavities in spheroidal graphite cast iron

Abstract

Under the subject of this study, it was found that the growth of graphite in eutectic solidification is the most important factor. Also, shrinkage cavity increases in hypereutectic composition because the crystallisation volume of graphite in eutectic solidification becomes smaller. In addition, the Al amount contained in spheroidal agent or molten metal works negatively for shrinkage cavity, which could be said the same for P, Mo and Cr. As for the shrinkage cavity in non-alloyed ductile iron, the metal supply resistance P _MSR is the most significant element in regard to the occurrence of shrinkage cavity. For tight mould, there is no relationship between modulus and shrinkage cavity while the P _MSR of a product is the dominant factor. This theory of P _MSR can be applied to final solidification loops of products based on simulation. Based on this, it became possible to make shrinkage cavity free products without a riser.     

Inoculated Slightly Hypereutectic Gray Cast Irons

The current experimental investigation in this article was designed to characterize the structure of mold (M) and ladle (L) inoculated, low-S (0.025 wt.% S), low-Al (0.003 wt.% Al), slightly hypereutectic (CE = 4.4-4.5 wt.%) electric melted gray irons, typical for high performance thin-wall castings. It describes the effect of a Ca, Al, Zr-FeSi inoculant addition of 0-0.25 wt.% on structure characteristics, and compares to similar treatments with hypoeutectic irons (3.5-3.6 wt.% CE, 0.025 wt.% S, and 0.003 wt.% Al). A complex structure including primary graphite, austenite dendrites, and eutectic cells is obtained in hypereutectic irons, as the result of nonequilibrium solidification following the concept of a coexisting region. Dendrites appear to be distributed between eutectic cells at higher eutectic undercooling, while in inoculated irons and for lower undercooling, the eutectic cells are “reinforced” by eutectic austenite dendrites. A Zr, Ca, Al-FeSi alloy appears to be an effective inoculant in low S, low Al, gray cast irons, especially for a late inoculation technique, with beneficial effects on both graphite and austenite phases. First, inoculation influenced the nucleation of graphite/eutectic cell, and then their characteristics. A further role of these active elements directly contributed to form nucleation sites for austenite, as complex (Mn,X)S particles.     

Study of shrinkage porosity in spheroidal graphite cast iron

This study aims at identifying the relationship between the shrinkage cavities and the solidification structure in spheroidal graphite cast iron. Cast samples specially designed to contain shrinkage cavities were used. The solidification macrostructure was revealed using the Direct Austempering After Solidification method, while the solidification microstructure was revealed by using colour etching. At the midsection of the pieces, the shrinkage cavities and the solidification structure were observed jointly. The study showed that the classification of shrinkage porosity found in literature does not correspond to the ductile iron solidification model recognized by most of the scientific community. Early solidification models, and therefore shrinkage formation mechanisms, were proposed in instances when there was not a thorough knowledge of the morphology of the solid phases during solidification. Nowadays, defects formation mechanisms can be described with higher accuracy. Therefore, an updated classification of shrinkage porosity for spheroidal graphite iron is proposed.     

过共晶球铁凝固过程中奥氏体的生长方式与形貌特征

采用着色腐蚀技术显示出过共晶球铁中的高温凝固组织，观察分析过共晶球铁凝固过程中奥氏体的生长方式与形持征。结果表明：在非平衡凝固条件下，过共晶球铁凝固时通常会析出初生枝晶和晕圈枝晶，其形成条件主要与冷却速率和熔体的过冷有关。随铸件模数Mc增大，枝晶数量减少，二次臂间距显著增大，形态趋于不发达，由初生枝晶向晕圈枝晶过渡。当Mc≤0.3cm时，二次臂间距的实测值与理论预测值基本吻合。初生石墨球周围往往形成环状封闭奥氏体壳；共晶前期石墨球周围形成封闭或不封闭的框架奥氏体壳；共晶后期石墨球往往被周边生长着的共晶奥氏体所包覆，最终成为共晶奥氏体的一部分。     

Kinetics of graphite expansion during eutectic solidification of cast iron

The paper introduces a new linear displacement analysis (LDA)/thermal analysis (TA) experimental device for measuring linear displacement during the solidification of cast iron. The experimental device comprises a sand mould encased in a steel shell that prevents mould wall movements. Thus, only the linear displacement caused by the shrinkage or expansion of the metal is recorded by the transducers. Two quartz rods introduced directly at different heights into the liquid metal and connected to two transducers record the linear displacement during the liquid–solid transformation and subsequent cooling. Two thermocouples positioned at the same height with the quartz rods allow for the concomitant TA and LDA and thus for the direct correlation between expansion/contraction and the temperature change during solidification events such as graphite formation. The LDA device was used to study the differences in the solidification mechanisms of irons with different graphite morphologies (lamellar, compacted/vermicular and spheroidal) at carbon equivalent in the range of 3·7–4·4%. The analysis included the LDA and TA curves and full metallographic characterisation of the cast irons. In general, graphite expansion increased as the graphite shape changed from lamellar, to compacted and then to spheroidal. The most important process variables are the magnesium and carbon contents. Higher Mg residual and C in the iron produced more graphite expansion. Compacted graphite (CG) iron was particularly sensitive to the Mg residual. Indeed, the high Mg CG irons exhibited similar graphite expansion to that of spheroidal graphite (SG) iron, while the low Mg CG iron expansion was closer to that of the lamellar graphite (LG) iron. Graphite expansion increased for all data with the time interval over which graphite expansion occurred. It also increased with both carbon and carbon equivalent. The time for graphite expansion increased noticeably with the carbon content of the iron. It did not depend on the graphite shape. By combining TA and LDA, it was possible to plot the evolution of graphite expansion as a function of the fraction solid and thus to understand the kinetics of graphite expansion. The amount of expansion available at the end of solidification was quantified. Such data, when correlated with process variables, will be useful in decreasing microshrinkage and in producing riserless compacted and SG irons.     

球墨铸铁预处理技术原理及生产应用实例

介绍了预处理技术提高球铁冶金质量(包括细化石墨球、增加石墨球数、提高球化率、改善铁液流动性和降低球铁件缩松、缩孔倾向)的基本原理;强调了其应用要点在于预处理反应Ba+O→BaO、Ba+S→BaS、La+S→LaS须在球化反应前进行,才能达到为铁液球化提供良好基础的目的;用高质量厚大球铁件和薄壁球铁件的生产实例说明了预处理技术的优势所在。     

Modelling of compacted graphite cast iron solidification-Discussion of microstructure parameters

A melt maintained for hours in a press pour unit allowed the following changes over time from spheroidal graphite to compacted graphite iron by casting thermal cups at regular time intervals.This provided extensive experimental information for checking the possibility of simulating solidification of compacted graphite irons by means of a microstructure modelling approach.During solidification,compacted graphite develops very much as lamellar graphite but with much less branching.On this basis,a simulation of the thermal analysis records was developed which considers solidification proceeding in a pseudo binary Fe-C system.The simulated curves were compared with the experimental ones obtained from three representative alloys that cover the whole microstructure change during the holding of the melt.The most relevant result is that the parameter describing branching capability of graphite is the most important for reproducing the minimum eutectic temperature and the recalescence which are so characteristic of the solidification of compacted graphite cast irons.     

Improving chill control in iron powder treated slightly hypereutectic grey cast irons

Recent studies revealed that in eutectic to slightly hypereutectic grey irons (CE = 4.3%-4.5%) the presence of austenite dendrites provides an opportunity to improve the cast iron properties, as a high number of eutectic cells are "reinforced" by austenite dendrites. An iron powder addition proved to be important by promoting dendritic austenite in hypereutectic irons, but was accompanied by adverse effect on the characteristics of potential nuclei for graphite. The purpose of the present paper is to investigate the solidification pattern of these irons. Chill wedges with different cooling moduli (CM = 0.11 - 0.43 cm) were poured in resin bonded sand and metal moulds.Relative clear / mottled / total chill measurement criteria were applied. Iron powder additions led to a higher chill tendency, while single inoculation showed the strongest graphitizing effect. The various double treatments show an intermediate position, but the inoculant added after iron powder appears to be the most effective in reducing base iron chill tendency, for all cooling moduli and chill evaluation parameters. This performance reflects the improved properties of (Mn,X)S polygonal compounds as nucleation sites for graphite, especially in resin bonded sand mould castings. Both austenite and graphite nucleation benefit from a double addition of iron powder + inoculant,with positive effect on the final structure and chill tendency.     

球墨铸铁的凝固形貌--球墨铸铁基础理论的最新发展(四)

介绍了球墨铸铁的微观和宏观凝固特征,薄壁和厚壁球铁的凝固形貌特点,以及球铁铸件壁厚与凝固时间的关系,同时分析了石墨球数和共晶晶粒数对球墨铸铁凝固品质的影响。     

Experimental and numerical analysis of effect of cooling rate on thermal–microstructural response of spheroidal graphite cast iron solidification

This work presents an experimental and numerical study of the solidification process of an eutectic spheroidal graphite cast iron (SGI). The effect of the cooling rate on the thermal–microstructural response is particularly analysed. To this end, experiments as well as numerical simulations were carried out. The experiments consisted in a solidification test in a wedge-like casting such that different cooling rates were measured at specific positions along the part. A metallographic analysis was also performed in five locations of the sample with the aim of obtaining the number and size of graphite nodules at the end of the process. The numerical simulations were made using multinodular based and uninodular based models. These two models predicted similar results in terms of cooling curves and nodule counts. Besides, good experimental–numerical agreements were obtained for both the cooling curves and the graphite nodule counts.     

Microstructural analysis of EN-GJS-450-10 ductile cast iron via vibrational casting

EN-GJS-450-10 ductile cast iron was produced with and without vibration to evaluate microstructural features.To investigate the effect of vibration,a reference,and two different castings having amplitudes of 0.9 mm and 1.8 mm were cast with a fixed vibration frequency of 50 Hz.The nodule count (density),form (type),size distribution,nodularity,and the fraction of graphite,percentages of both ferrite and pearlite phases,length of ferrite shell,and pore,were evaluated via optical microscopy using an image analysis software.It is observed that the microstructure of the cast iron is more uniform by vibrational casting than that by non-vibrational casting.Additionally,mechanical vibration enhances nodule count and nodularity,also,more ferritic matrix could be obtained after the application of vibration.Nodule count and nodularity of vibrational casting with 1.8 mm amplitude increased from 226 nodule per mm~2 and 80% to 311 nodule per mm~2 and 86.5% of non-vibrational casting.Percentages of ferrite and graphite area dramatically improved from 24% and 16.5% for non-vibrational casting to 57% and 22.3% for vibrational casting with 1.8 mm amplitude,whereas the percentages of pearlite and pores decreased significantly from 56.1% and 5% to 20% and 1%,respectively.