Effects of heat treatments on the microstructures and mechanical properties of Mg–3Nd–0.2Zn–0.4Zr (wt.%) alloy

Microstructure and mechanical properties of as-cast and different heat treated Mg–3Nd–0.2Zn–0.4Zr (wt.%) (NZ30K) alloys were investigated. The as-cast alloy was comprised of magnesium matrix and Mg₁₂Nd eutectic compounds. After solution treatment at 540 °C for 6 h, the eutectic compounds dissolved into the matrix and small Zr-containing particles precipitated at grain interiors. Further aging at low temperatures led to plate-shaped metastable precipitates, which strengthened the alloy. Peak-aged at 200 °C for 10–16 h, fine β″ particles with DO₁₉ structure was the dominant strengthening phase. The alloy had ultimate tensile strength (UTS) and elongation of 300–305 MPa and 11%, respectively. Aged at 250 °C for 10 h, coarse β′ particles with fcc structure was the dominant strengthening phase. The alloy showed UTS and elongation of 265 MPa and 20%, respectively. Yield strengths (YS) of these two aged conditions were in the same level, about 140 MPa. Precipitation strengthening was the largest contributor (about 60%) to the strength in these two aged conditions. The hardness of aged NZ30K alloy seemed to correspond to UTS not YS.     

Investigations of MX and γ′/γ″ precipitates in the nickel-based superalloy 718 produced by electron beam melting

Samples with a composition similar to the nickel-based superalloy Inconel alloy 718 were produced by electron beam melting of prealloyed powder and investigated with respect to type and composition of the strengthening precipitates. The matrix consists of γ grains orientated in nearly the same direction, almost like a single crystal. Coarse precipitates (<2 μm), mostly of the (Ti,Nb)(C,N,B) type with B1 structure, are aligned along the growth direction. TEM and APFIM investigations of the γ matrix revealed very fine γ″ precipitates of around 5–10 nm in size. Additionally, at small angle grain boundaries, coarser γ″ precipitates of 50–100 nm in size have been observed. The 0 01 γ//0 0 1 γ″ and {1 0 0} γ//{1 0 0} γ″ orientation relationship between γ and γ″, known from literature [M. Sundararaman, P. Mukhopadhyay, Mater. Charact. 31 (1993) 191–196], was confirmed. Some γ′ precipitates of 2–5 nm in size were observed by means of FIM.     

Study of transformation behavior in a Ti–4.4 Ta–1.9 Nb alloy

An alloy of composition Ti–4.4 wt.% Ta–1.9 wt.% Nb is being developed as a structural material for corrosion applications, as titanium and its alloys possess excellent corrosion resistance in many oxidizing media. The primary physical metallurgy database for the Ti–4.4 wt.% Ta–1.9 wt.% Nb alloy is being presented for the first time. Determination of the β transus, M_s temperature and classification of the alloy have been carried out, employing a variety of microscopy techniques, X-ray diffraction (XRD), micro-hardness and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The β transition temperature or β transus determined using different experimental techniques was found to agree very well with evaluations based on empirical calculations. Based on chemistry and observed room temperature microstructure, the alloy has been classified as an + β titanium alloy. The high temperature β transforms to either ′ or + β by a martensitic or Widmanstatten transformation. The mechanisms of transformation of β under different conditions and characteristics of different types of have been studied and discussed in this paper.     

Recrystallization of the ODS superalloy PM-1000

The primary recrystallization of a 1 0 0-fiber textured coarse-grained oxide dispersion strengthened nickel-based superalloy (PM-1000) has been investigated by high-resolution electron backscatter diffraction. The annealing behavior of this alloy is quite complex. Even at high annealing temperatures (e.g. 1200 °C), recrystallization is only partial. The microstructure of this superalloy in the annealed state consists of a blurred subgrain structure, coarse grains with sizes of about 10–20 μm at the pre-existing grain boundaries and a significant fraction of small crystals in the interior of the recovered grains. These small grains are elongated and display anisotropic growth. In the present paper we present a detailed explanation for this peculiar microstructure. Particular focus is placed on the origin of the new grains in the recovered structure in a [1 0 0]-oriented grain.     

Fabrication and properties of WC–10Co cemented carbide reinforced by multi-walled carbon nanotubes

High-velocity parting-off has been applied to 80 mm bars of pearlitic 100CrMn6, resulting in shear localisation and white-etching bands in a severely deformed region below the fracture surface. Electron microscopy showed that going from the bulk material towards the fracture surface the grains become elongated and refined. The region below the fracture surface can be divided into three subzones: 50–100 μm below the surface grains are elongated, cementite lamellae are distorted, break up and the lamellar spacing decreases. <50 μm below the fracture surface the microstructure becomes a mix of cementite lamellae and carbides in a ferrite matrix. Within the white-etching band the microstructure consists of equiaxed ferrite refined to a grain size of 50–150 nm. Several twinned regions caused by the deformation can be observed. Selected area electron diffraction and low angle convergent beam electron diffraction indicate nanocrystalline cementite dispersed in the ferrite matrix.     

Effect of heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the spray-deposited Al–10.8Zn–2.8Mg–1.9Cu alloy

In this study, effect of various aging tempers (T6, T73 and RRA treatment) on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the spray-deposited Al–10.8Zn–2.8Mg–1.9Cu alloy was studied using high-resolution electron microscopy, selected area diffraction, and tensile tests. The results indicate that the two types of GP zones, GPI and GPII, are major precipitates for the alloy under T6 condition. No clear precipitation free zone was observed, and the grain boundary precipitates were continuous. Under two-step aging condition, the GP zones and η′ are major precipitates for the alloy, the discontinuous grain boundary precipitates are favorable to SCC resistance in over-aged condition, which reduces its strength 58 MPa (about 7%) compared to the peak-aged condition. After retrogression and re-aging treatment, the grain boundary precipitates are discontinuous, which is closed to that resulting from T73 temper. RRA treatment decreased ultimate tensile strength 25 MPa (about 3%) in values compared with the alloy at T6 condition.     

Correlation between the intergranular brittleness and precipitation reactions during isothermal aging of an Fe–Ni–Mn maraging steel

Evolution of the intergranular brittleness of an Fe–10Ni–7Mn (weight pct) maraging steel was correlated with precipitation reactions during isothermal aging at 753 K. Intergranular brittleness of the Fe–Ni–Mn steel raises after aging treatment which occurs catastrophically at zero tensile elongation in the underaged and peakaged steels. The intergranular failure is attributed to grain boundary weakening due to the formation of coarse grain boundary precipitates associated with solute-depleted precipitate-free zones during isothermal aging. Further, evidences of planar slip bands were found within the grains of a peakaged specimen loaded by tensile deformation. Those inhomogeneously deformed bands were identified to apply large strain localization in the soft precipitate-free zones at grain boundaries which is assumed to fascinate microcracks initiation at negligible macroscopic strains in the underaged and peakaged steels. During further aging, concurrent reactions including (i) overaging of matrix precipitates, (ii) spheroidization of grain boundary precipitates, (iii) growth of precipitate-free zone in width and (iv) diffusional transformation to austenite take place which increase tensile ductility after prolonged aging.     

Spinodal decomposition existence of the β Ti–Cr binary alloy: computer simulation of the real alloy system and experimental investigations

The spinodal decomposition of β Ti–Cr binary alloys system still questionable, since there are rare experimental data moreover simulation results for the real alloy system have not been found. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and quantitative computer simulations results based on Khachaturyan's diffusion equation have been employed to study the microstructure evolution occurring in the β Ti–Cr alloys. Our study results reveal that the metastable β undergoes a phase separation reaction through a spinodal decomposition. The coherent two phase fields show extremely fine plate-like precipitates lying parallel to {1 0 0} plane. Those precipitates are high elastically-induced from the first step of phase separation.     

Effect of Small γ Precipitates on the Two-way Shape Memory Effect in a Cu–Zn–Al Alloy

After the treatment for the Stabilization of Stress-Induced Martensite (SSIM) in Cu–Zn–Al alloys, it was found that the small γ precipitates in the β austenite are ellipsoidal with a large strain field oriented in the same direction, while in the martensite, the γ precipitates changed their shape from ellipsoidal to spheroidal, which relaxed the strain field. To check whether the strain field of the γ precipitates is available to produce thermoelastic martensitic transformation, in situ observations with a heating sample holder in TME were performed. It was found that after heating above the A_s temperature, the spherical γ precipitates in the martensite recovered their strain field and elliptical shape. During cooling, the strain field of the γ precipitates disappeared again. This means that the strain fields of the γ precipitates trained by the SSIM method play an important part in the thermoelastic martensitic transformation that presents the two-way shape memory effect.     

The effects of trace Sc and Zr on microstructure and internal friction of Zn–Al eutectoid alloy

The damping properties of Zn–22 wt.% Al alloys without and with Sc (0.55 wt.%) and Zr (0.26 wt.%) were investigated. The internal friction of the determined by the microstructure has been measured in terms of logarithmic decrement (δ) using a low frequency inverted torsion pendulum over the temperature region of 10–230 °C. An internal friction peak was separately observed at about 218 °C in the Zn–Al alloy and at about 195 °C in Zn–Al–Sc–Zr alloy. The shift of the δ peak was found to be directly attributed to the precipitation of Al₃(Sc, Zr) phases from the alloy matrix. We consider that the both internal friction peak in the alloy originates from grain boundary (GB) relaxation, but the grain boundary relaxation can also be affected by Al–Sc–Zr intermetallics at the grain boundaries, which will impede grain boundary sliding. In addition, Al–Sc–Zr intermetallics at the grain boundaries can pin grain boundaries, and inhibit the growth of grains in aging, which increases the damping stability of Zn–22 wt.% Al alloy.     

Formation of nanocrystalline structure of Ti–6Al–4V alloy by cyclic hydrogenation–dehydrogenation treatment

Ti–6Al–4V (Ti64) sheet specimens were cathodically hydrogenated in sulfuric acid solution at ambient conditions. The hydrogenated specimens were then sent to go through the designed thermohydrogen processing (THP) twice to obtain a nano-sized grain structure. The average grain size of resulted microstructure was found to be 10–20 nm obtained by TEM. Qualitative and quantitative analyses performed by employing X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and elemental analysis (EA) showed that the addition of As₂O₃ as hydrogenation promoter in electrolyte significantly increased the hydrogen uptake. The high concentration of hydrogen arising from promoter action is the key factor in grain refinement. The optimal processing parameter found for grain-refining Ti64 was: (1) electrolytic hydrogenation at 100 mA cm⁻² for 3 h in 1 N H₂SO_4(aq) by adding 0.1 g L⁻¹ As₂O₃; (2) β transformation carried out at 850 °C for 1 h in air furnace, followed by a furnace cooling to 590 °C and held for 6 h; (3) oxide film removed and then dehydrogenated at 650 °C and 1.0 × 10⁻⁶ Torr for 10 h; (4) repeated the same processes once more.     

Thermal conductivity of Al–SiC composites with monomodal and bimodal particle size distribution

The thermal conductivity of aluminum matrix composites having a high volume fraction of SiC particles is investigated by comparing data for composites fabricated by infiltrating liquid aluminum into preforms made either from a single particle size, or by mixing and packing SiC particles of two largely different average sizes (170 and 16 μm). For composites based on powders with a monomodal size distribution, the thermal conductivity increases steadily from 151 W/m K for particles of average diameter 8 μm to 216 W/m K for 170 μm particles. For the bimodal particle mixtures the thermal conductivity increases with increasing volume fraction of coarse particles and reaches a roughly constant value of 220 W/m K for mixtures with 40 or more vol.% of coarse particles. It is shown that all present data can be accounted for by the differential effective medium (DEM) scheme taking into account a finite interfacial thermal resistance.     

High temperature oxidation of Ni–W coatings electroplated on steel

The high-temperature oxidation of Ni–16 at.% W coating electroplated on the steel substrate was studied at 700 and 800 °C in air. Before oxidation, the coating consisted of supersaturated, nanocrystalline Ni grains. During oxidation, oxygen diffused inward, Ni and the substrate elements such as Fe and Cr diffused outward. The outer NiO layer was not pure but had some dissolved ions of W⁶⁺ and Fe³⁺. Some Fe³⁺ ions were dissolved in the inner (NiO+NiWO₄) mixed layer, below which (W, Fe)-supersaturated, unoxidized Ni grains existed. Below these grains, tiny Ni–W–Fe precipitates, which were formed by the outward diffusion of Fe from the substrate, were surrounded by unoxidized (Fe-enriched, Cr-containing) Ni grains. Detailed oxidation mechanism of Ni–16 at.% W coating is proposed.     

Gamma double prime precipitation kinetic in Alloy 718

Gamma double prime (γ′′), precipitation was studied in Alloy 718 using isothermal and isochronal aging heat treatments applied between 943 and 1003 K. It is shown, that the coarsening behavior of γ′′ precipitates follows the coarsening kinetic predictions of the Lifshitz–Slyozov–Wagner (LSW) theory. The activation energy for γ′′ growth has been determined as equal to 272 kJ mol⁻¹ and seems to be controlled by volume diffusion of niobium in the matrix. The energy of the γ′′/matrix interface, Γ, has been found to be 95 ± 17 mJ m⁻² by assuming that the γ′′ precipitates adopt a disk shape which minimizes the total energy. This energy includes a volume distortion term calculated from the Eshelby inclusion theory and a surface component which is assumed to be isotropic. This interfacial energy is discussed and compared with the energy of γ′/matrix and γ′′/matrix interfaces in other superalloys. The constant K′′ of the LSW law time dependence has been calculated using the value of interfacial energy and the activation energy of γ′′ precipitates coarsening and is found to be in good agreement with our experimental values.     

Texture Evolution in Heavily Cold-Rolled FeCo-2V Alloy during Annealing

The recrystallization texture evolution in heavily cold-rolled (93%) FeCo-2V alloy with annealing temperature and time was investigated by X-ray diffraction and electron backscatter diffraction. It was found that the orientation density of α-fiber texture component fluctuates with increasing annealing temperature and time. The transmission electron microscopy images show that abundant precipitates appear inside the recrystallized grains and around the grain boundaries. The amount and size of the precipitate...     

Magneto-mechanical properties evolution of Fe–C alloy during precipitation process

Evolution of magneto-mechanical properties of 160 ppm Fe–C alloy due to carbides precipitation during isothermal annealing at 473 K (up to t=50×10³ s) was studied by means of classical Barkhausen noise (HBN) and mechanical Barkhausen noise (MBN) effects. The MBN was measured for the torsion mode of load with a torque motor. Also the B(H) hysteresis loop and the coercive field H_c were evaluated using a low-frequency magnetisation set. Magnetic hysteresis losses ΔW₁ were compared with the integral ΔW₂ of HBN intensity over one period of magnetisation and the integral ΔW₃ of MBN intensity over one period of the mechanical load. The internal stress distribution function and the resulting mean level of internal stress parameter σ_i were evaluated from the MBN ‘first load’ data. It was revealed that a correlated increase of ΔW₁ and ΔW₂ parameters exists. However, the relative increase of ΔW₃ is much lower than the relative increase of ΔW₁. The relationship between H_c and σ_i was found to be parabolic. This dependence explained by Néel’s model of the impact of the residual stress level on H_c. The presence of precipitates of type was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy.     

Microstructure evolution and texture formation of 16 % chromium ferritic stainless steel following simulated batch annealing treatments in mass production

Batch annealing technique is mainly used in industry for improving productivity as a few steel coils were stacked and heated in a bell-type furnace. The microstructure evolution, texture formation and mechanical properties of 16 % chromium ferritic stainless steel under different simulated batch annealing and subsequent cold-rolled annealing conditions were investigated in this work. Results showed that batch annealing process applied in mass production could not produce fully recrystallized and homogenously equiaxed grains even at very high temperatures up to 900 °C for 30 hours. With increased batch annealing temperature, a large number of chromium carbides precipitated in ferrite, while some unstable Fe-carbide precipitates were gradually dissolved. Relatively lower cold-rolled annealing temperature (830 °C) led to finer grains and superior mechanical properties of 16 % chromium ferritic stainless steel. Increased batch annealing temperature improved the intensity of {111}//normal direction γ-fiber textures at the expense of other orientations including {hkl}<110> α-fiber, {334}<4 3>, thus improving the formability of ferritic stainless steel.     

颗粒级配对固相烧结碳化硅陶瓷的影响

通过粗细碳化硅粉体的颗粒级配实现了致密固相烧结碳化硅(S-SiC)陶瓷的增强增韧, 系统研究了粗粉(~4.6 µm)加入量对烧结试样的致密化、微结构与力学特性的影响。结果表明: 当粗粉加入量不超过75wt%时, 可制备出相对密度≥98.3%的致密S-SiC陶瓷, 烧结收缩率低至14.5%;引入的粗粉颗粒产生钉扎作用, 显著抑制了S-SiC陶瓷中异常晶粒生长, 形成细小的等轴晶粒, 进而提高了S-SiC陶瓷的抗弯强度。同时, 粗粉颗粒的引入导致S-SiC陶瓷的断裂方式由穿晶断裂转变为穿晶-沿晶复合断裂, 使得S-SiC陶瓷的断裂韧性增强。对于粗粉引入量为65wt%的S-SiC陶瓷, 抗弯强度与断裂韧性分别为(440±35) MPa与(4.92±0.24) MPa•m^1/2, 相比于未添加粗粉的S-SiC陶瓷, 分别提升了14.0%与17.1%。     

The effect of copper addition on the structure and strength of an Al–Li alloy

In this study the effect of copper addition on the structure, precipitation kinetics and hardness in the Al–Li and Al–Li–Cu alloys aged at 200°C was investigated. The structures of precipitates were studied using X-ray-small-angle-scattering (XSAS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) methods. The changes in the structure parameter (Rg) of both alloys was calculated using two methods, the Guinier approximation and correlation function γ(r). By use of a plot of r γ(r) the distribution law of the T₁ disc thickness was obtained and the coexisting spherical particles of δ′ were estimated. Two types of δ′ precipitates of approximately 2 nm size and above 8 nm and the T₁ precipitates of thickness between 3 and 4 nm were observed.     

High electrical properties of W-additive Mn-modified PZT–PMS–PZN ceramics for high power piezoelectric transformers

The ceramics were prepared successfully by the addition of WO₃ to the Mn-modified Pb(Zr_0.52Ti_0.48)O₃–Pb(Mn_1/3Sb_2/3)O₃–Pb(Zn_1/3Nb_2/3)O₃ (PZT–PMS–PZN) for high power piezoelectric transformers application. XRD analysis indicated that the ceramics were mainly composed of a tetragonal phase in the range of 0–1.0 wt.% WO₃ addition. The grain size of the ceramics significantly decreased from 10.0 to 2.9 μm by addition of WO₃. Moreover, the addition of WO₃ promoted densification of the ceramics and increased mechanical quality factor (Q_m), planar coupling factor (K_p) and piezoelectric constant (d₃₃) kept high values, whereas, dielectric loss (tan δ) was low. Δf (=f_a − f_r) slightly changed when WO₃ addition was above 0.5 wt.%. The ceramics with 0.6 wt.% WO₃ addition, sintered at 1150 °C showed the optimized piezoelectric and dielectric properties with Q_m of 1852, K_p of 0.58, d₃₃ of 243 pC/N and tan δ of 0.0050. The ceramics are promising candidates for high power piezoelectric transformers application.