Reduction of test anxiety through cognitive restructuring.

This collaborative clinical outcome study with 36 18–49 yr old Ss compared 2 procedures for reducing test anxiety with a waiting list control. In the first, systematic rational restructuring, the participants were trained to realistically reevaluate imaginally presented test-taking situations. In the second, a prolonged exposure condition, Ss were presented the same hierarchy items but with no instructions for coping cognitively. Ss were administered the following measures of test anxiety; the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness, Achievement Anxiety Test, Test Anxiety Questionnaire, Fear of Negative Evaluation, Social Avoidance and Distress Scale, and the Trait Scale of the Stait-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Results show greater anxiety reduction in the systematic rational restructuring condition, followed by the prolonged exposure group, with no changes for the control. Only those in the rational restructuring condition reported a significant decrease in subjective anxiety when placed in an analog test-taking situation. Ss in the restructuring condition also reported greater generalized anxiety reduction in social-evaluative situations. Within the broader context of cognitive behavior therapy, these results indicate that the cognitive reappraisal of anxiety-provoking situations can offer an effective treatment procedure for the reduction of anxiety. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional disclosure through writing or speaking modulates latent Epstein-Barr virus antibody titers.

57 healthy Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) seropositive undergraduates completed a personality inventory, provided blood samples, and were randomly assigned to write or talk about stressful events, or to write about trivial events, during 3 weekly 20-min sessions, after which they provided a final blood sample. Ss assigned to the verbal/stressful condition had significantly lower EBV antibody titers (suggesting better cellular immune control over the latent virus) after the intervention than those in the written/stressful group, who had significantly lower values than those in the written/trivial control group. Ss assigned to the written/stressful condition expressed more negative emotional words than the verbal/stressful and control groups and more positive emotional words than the verbal/stressful group at each time point. The verbal/stressful group expressed more negative emotional words compared with the control group at baseline. Content analysis indicated that the verbal/stressful group achieved the greatest improvements in cognitive change, self-esteem, and adaptive coping strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of situation and coping on relapse crisis outcomes after smoking cessation.

Examines the influence of situational characteristics and coping on the outcome of a relapse crisis for 232 Ss followed for 1 month after a self-initiated smoking cessation attempt. Survival of a relapse crisis was most strongly related to the number of coping strategies used. All coping strategies were equally effective; furthermore, combining cognitive and behavioral coping strategies was not more effective than using multiple cognitive or multiple behavioral strategies. During the second half of the follow-up period (Weeks 3 and 4 postcessation), the presence of smokers resulted in a decreased likelihood of coping and an increased likelihood of smoking. In addition, active coping was marginally related to higher baseline levels of motivation to quit. When motivation and the presence of smokers were controlled, however, coping still significantly predicted outcome. Results are discussed with reference to previous relapse studies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress-related appraisals: A regression analysis.

Conducted 2 studies with 70 male undergraduates that attempted to demonstrate the relative importance of different cognitive appraisals that have a bearing on the amount of stress reported by Ss in an ego-threatening situation. The 1st study scaled a set of stimuli, the related difficulty of which was used to order the stimuli for the 2nd study. In the 2nd study, different appraisal antecedents to stress were assessed. Results of path analysis show that the most important single appraisal related to anticipated stress was that of stimulus difficulty or aversiveness. This held irrespective of trait anxiety, although high anxious Ss used their perception of stimulus aversiveness even more in their later expectations of stress. Only anticipated stress predicted actual perceived stress. Conclusions are drawn about the adequacy of present formulations of the cognitive appraisal process of stress and potential reasons for the effectiveness of cognitively based treatment strategies for stress. (French summary) (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of justice beliefs on cognitive appraisal of and subjective physiological, and behavioral responses to potential stress.

Investigated the moderating role of just world beliefs on stress and coping processes. Ss high and low in belief in a just world were asked to perform a potentially stressful laboratory task, which was repeated once. Cognitive appraisals and subjective, autonomic, and behavioral responses were recorded for each of the 2 tasks. The results supported a stress-moderating effect for just world beliefs. lndividuals high in just world beliefs had more benign cognitive appraisals of the stress tasks, rated the tasks as less stressful post hoc, had autonomic reactions consistent with challenge (vs threat), and outperformed Ss low in just world beliefs. Discussion centers on factors that moderate the experiences of challenge and threat in potentially stressful situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effectiveness of maximally different cognitive strategies and expectancy in attenuation of reported pain.

Ninety-six Ss rated pain during baseline and posttreatment exposures to cold pressor pain. Between trials, Ss in four groups were trained to use one of four cognitive coping strategies involving (a) imaginal reinterpretation, (b) imaginal distraction, (c) nonimaginal reinterpretation, or (d) nonimaginal distraction. Two additional groups were given: (e) an expectation for analgesia but no coping strategy and (f) no treatment. The four coping strategies produced equivalent attenuation of pain ratings and equivalent expectancies for analgesia. Expectancy control Ss expected analgesia, but reported no significant pain reductions. No treatment control Ss neither expected nor achieved any significant pain reductions. Among cognitive strategy groups, the Ss' absorption added significantly to the variance in pain reduction above and beyond the effects of expectancy. Theoretical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Latent structure of strategies used to cope with nociceptive stimulation.

Investigated the latent cognitive structure of 32 undergraduates' perceptions of coping strategies used by 50 college students exposed to a cold pressor test or a muscle ischemia task, using multidimensional scaling (MDS). The resulting strategy clusters (e.g., behavioral activity, pleasant imaginings) were grouped into sensation acknowledging, coping relevance, and cognitive/behavioral dimensions. Using different methodology and MDS analysis, 22 undergraduates' perceptions of the 3 coping strategies were examined. There was close correspondence between the resulting dimensions and those of the 1st sample. Results show that Ss preferred strategies that ignored pain sensations and suggest a method for assessing relative efficiency of coping strategies for pain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping, Distress, and Life Events in a Community Sample.

Coping strategies represent behavioral and cognitive efforts to deal with stressful encounters (R. S. Lazarus & S. Folkman, 1984). This study aimed to assess the pattern of associations between demographic variables, problem-and emotion-focused coping, and distress. A representative sample of 510 adult Israelis completed coping and distress inventories. Emotion-focused coping showed strong positive associations with distress, whereas problem-focused coping was negatively related to this variable, although to a lesser degree. The effects of problem-focused coping on distress were more pronounced for participants who had experienced a recent life event. The conclusion to be drawn is that stressful conditions may enhance the effects of coping strategies on distress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stressful situations in caregiving: Relations between caregiver coping and well-being.

We examined ways in which caregivers cope with stressful caregiving situations and the relations between coping strategies and caregivers' psychosocial well-being. Respondents were 58 family caregivers to patients discharged from a rehabilitation hospital. Caregivers identified a recent stressful event in caregiving and indicated strategies used to cope with this event. After controlling for patients' impairment level, analyses indicated that caregivers engaging in more escape–avoidance coping reported greater depression and more conflict in their personal relationships. Those using more positive reappraisal demonstrated greater positive affect. Younger caregivers, many of whom were women, used more avoidance strategies. Results have implications for therapeutic interventions with family caregivers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping with temptations to smoke.

Explored the effectiveness of coping responses reported to a hotline by ex-smokers dealing with temptations to smoke. Earlier findings on the effectiveness of cognitive and behavioral responses for 183 smokers were cross-validated on 75 new Ss. The number of coping responses had no effect, but combining cognitive and behavioral responses enhanced effectiveness. Formal smoking cessation treatment resulted in more behavioral coping, especially relaxation and physical activity, but had no effect on coping effectiveness. Seven types of behavioral coping were equally effective: Each was significantly more effective than no coping response and equal to other behavioral responses in preventing relapse. A similar pattern held for 8 types of cognitive coping, except that the use of willpower was significantly inferior to other cognitive responses, and self-punitive thoughts were entirely ineffective. The implications of these findings for the coping skill model of self-control and for clinical practice are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Control of respiration as a means of controlling responses to threat.

111 undergraduates assessed the degree to which persons' physiological and psychological responses in a threatening situation might be altered by controlling respiration. Ss who (a) had a history of cardiac disease, (b) were taking medication that would influence heart rate, or (c) were engaged in any form of meditation were excluded from the study. After a 30-min rest period, Ss in a respiration-tracing condition began replicating their breathing patterns from the rest period; Ss in an attention-tracing condition participated in a comparable task that did not involve the control of respiration; and Ss in a no-tracing condition were not assigned any task. After the tracing manipulation was introduced, half of the Ss were assigned to a threat condition and informed that they would receive a series of painful electric shocks; the other Ss were assigned to a no-threat condition and informed that they would receive red light stimulation. Analyses of heart-rate and self-report data indicated that (a) the threat manipulation was effective; (b) controlling respiration did not reduce Ss' stress responses; and (c) Ss in the no-tracing condition were the only stressed Ss to show decreases in physiological arousal over time, an effect that may have been due to their use of a cognitive coping strategy. Findings do not provide evidence that control of respiration is an effective strategy for controlling stress but do suggest that, when not interfered with, Ss can employ relatively effective, self-generated cognitive coping strategies. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping profiles associated with psychiatric, physical health, work, and family problems.

Examined coping profiles of 11 samples (identified in the stress literature) with a total of 1,298 individuals experiencing psychiatric, physical health, work, or family problems. Comparisons were made in Ss with and without anxiety and depression to control for the effects of distress. Coping was similar for Ss in similar problem categories, but different for Ss in different categories. Psychiatric Ss made more use of avoidance and less use of social supports. Ss with physical health problems were among the most frequent users of social supports. Ss with a family problem were among the most frequent users of problem-focused coping and the least frequent users of self-blame. Ss with work stress were the most frequent users of self-blame. Results support the hypothesis that persons with psychopathology cope in maladaptive ways involving dysfunctional strategies that constitute the behavioral disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of talking about a stressful event on arousal: Does what we talk about make a difference?

In Study 1, 30 male and 30 female undergraduates viewed an affect-neutral stimulus and a stress-inducing stimulus. Ss then talked about either their emotional reactions to the stressful stimulus (emotion condition), the sequence of events within it (fact condition), or the sequence of events within the neutral stimulus (distraction condition). Emotion-condition Ss were more autonomically aroused during a 2nd exposure to the stressful stimulus than were fact-condition Ss. In Study 2, 48 hrs separated Ss' talking about their 1st exposure to the stressful stimulus from their 2nd exposure to it. Emotion-condition Ss had lower levels of autonomic arousal while viewing the stimulus again and reported more positive affect after watching it than did fact-condition Ss. These results are discussed in the context of cognitive appraisal, perceptual-motor, and self-disclosure views of emotion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive appraisals and problem-directed coping: A prospective study of stress.

Information-seeking and problem-directed coping behaviors following a stressful event were observed as a function of cognitive appraisals of the coping resources of 138 undergraduates. Subjectively defined failure on a college exam served as an example of a mild stressor. Prior to the 1st midterm exam, Ss generated alternative strategies that could be used in the event of dissatisfaction with performance and rated the feasibility of using these strategies. Academic coping behaviors were measured by self-report and direct observation during the 3 wks prior to the next exam. Results show that coping cognitions predicted academic behaviors but not exam scores. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Suffering for science: The effects of implicit social demands on response to experimentally induced pain.

144 undergraduates rated their pain during baseline trials of cold-pressor and finger-pressure pain in 2 experiments. After various instructional treatments, they were posttested with the same stimuli. Results show that coping suggestions significantly reduced reported pain. In Exp I (80 Ss), however, Ss often refrained from using available cognitive coping strategies to reduce pain unless they had been given explicit permission to do so. Exp II (64 Ss) replicated this finding and showed that explicit permission to "do whatever you can to reduce pain" was as effective as a coping suggestion in decreasing reported pain. Findings show that Ss' interpretation of what was appropriate responding in the test situation determined how they chose to cope with the painful stimulation. It is suggested that standard experimental procedures for assessing baseline levels of pain implicitly lead Ss to refrain from coping and thereby tend to underestimate their ability to control pain. It is further suggested that instructional techniques for coping with pain may produce much of their effect by giving Ss permission to use already available coping strategies. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress, coping, and high-risk sexual behavior.

Examined the relation between stress, coping, and a high-risk sexual behavior (unprotected anal intercourse [UAI]) in 398 nonmonogamous gay and bisexual men. UAI during the previous month, the amount of stress experienced during the previous month in each of 10 domains, 6 types of coping, and spiritual beliefs and activities were assessed through self-report. There was no relation between stress and UAI, but there was between coping and UAI. Ss who reported UAI used sex more to help cope with stressful situations. UAI was negatively associated with seeking social support and spiritual activities and positively associated with self-controlling coping, which involves keeping one's feelings to oneself, and positive reappraisal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Matching stress inoculation's treatment components to client's anxiety mode.

65 speech-anxious undergraduates (determined by the Personal Report of Confidence as a Speaker) were classified as experiencing primarily cognitive or somatic symptoms of anxiety as measured on the Cognitive–Somatic Anxiety Questionnaire. Ss received cognitive restructuring, coping relaxation, a combined cognitive–somatic treatment (stress inoculation), or no treatment. Indices of anxiety (e.g., the Anxiety scale of the Affect Adjective Check List) were obtained. The cognitive indices of anxiety provided the strongest support for the "matching" hypothesis, in that matched treatments resulted in more facilitative patterns of cognitions relevant to the stressor. All treatments were more effective than the no-treatment control in reducing behavioral indicants of anxiety, although a self-report measure of speech anxiety failed to show such treatment effects. Results are discussed in the context of treating focused anxieties by attending to the individual's concerns in the anxiety-arousing situation. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cognitive coping skills training on coping strategies and experimental pain sensitivity in African American adults with sickle cell disease.

The present study examined whether training in cognitive coping skills would enhance pain coping strategies and alter pain perception in adults with sickle cell disease (SCD). Sixty-four African Americans with SCD were randomly assigned to either a cognitive coping skills condition (three 45-min sessions in which patients were trained to use 6 cognitive coping strategies) or a disease-education control condition (three 45-min didactic-discussion sessions about SCD). Pain sensitivity to calibrated noxious stimulation was measured at pre- and posttesting, as were cognitive coping strategies, clinical pain, and health behaviors. Results indicated that, compared with the randomly assigned control condition, brief training in cognitive coping skills resulted in increased coping attempts, decreased negative thinking, and lower tendency to report pain during laboratory-induced noxious stimulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Avoidance coping strategies moderate the relationship between self-efficacy and 5-year alcohol treatment outcomes.

Both self-efficacy and coping strategies are important determinants of functioning for substance use disorder patients, yet little is known about their interrelationship. This study examined the relationship between abstinence self-efficacy and cognitive components of coping (positive reappraisal, cognitive avoidance) for male participants (n = 2,596) from 15 residential substance use disorder treatment programs who were assessed at treatment entry, discharge, and 5-year follow-up. Cognitive avoidance coping moderated the effects of self-efficacy on alcohol use at 5 years, whereas positive reappraisal coping was largely unrelated to outcomes. Specifically, for patients with low self-efficacy, reliance on avoidance coping strategies was associated with poorer alcohol use outcomes, but as self-efficacy increased, the negative influence of avoidance coping strategies diminished. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Divergent cognitive costs for online forms of reappraisal and distraction.

The present study was set out to evaluate the cognitive costs of two major emotion regulation strategies under conditions of increased challenge. Previous studies have established that cognitive reappraisal (construing an emotional event in nonemotional terms) has no cognitive costs. However, in all of these studies, reappraisal was initiated at the emotional situation onset, before emotional response tendencies sufficiently evolved. In the present study, the challenge of regulation strategies was increased by initiating strategies online at a late time point in an emotional situation. Applying this procedure revealed for the first time a cognitive cost for reappraisal and also provided double dissociation between reappraisal and another major cognitive emotion regulation strategy--distraction (diverting attention from an emotional situation via producing neutral thoughts). Specifically, late reappraisal, relative to distraction, resulted in an expenditure of self control resources. Late distraction but not reappraisal impaired memory encoding of the emotional situation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)