Acquisition and extinction in autoshaping.

C. R. Gallistel and J. Gibbon (2000) presented quantitative data on the speed with which animals acquire behavioral responses during autoshaping, together with a statistical model of learning intended to account for them. Although this model captures the form of the dependencies among critical variables, its detailed predictions are substantially at variance with the data. In the present article, further key data on the speed of acquisition are used to motivate an alternative model of learning, in which animals can be interpreted as paying different amounts of attention to stimuli according to estimates of their differential reliabilities as predictors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of context in autoshaping.

Three experiments used an autoshaping procedure in 64 female White Carneaux pigeons to investigate the conditioning of the context and of a discrete CS with a food UCS. CS–UCS associations were measured by directed pecking at the key light CS; context–UCS associations were assessed by general activity in the context. Exp I investigated the influence of context–UCS associations on performance to a previously trained CS. The same CS produced greater keypecking in a context of higher associative strength. Exp II examined the influence of context–UCS associations on learning of CS–UCS associations. When tested in a context of fixed associative strength, a CS that had been trained in a context of high associative strength elicited less responding than one trained in a context of low associative strength. Exp III found that signaling a UCS by a discrete CS interfered with the formation of context–UCS associations, as measured both in terms of general activity and ability to promote responding to another CS. Results suggest that the context and the CS compete for association with the UCS. They also suggest that context–UCS associations facilitate the exhibition of CS–UCS associations. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Configural analysis of summation in autoshaping.

In 4 experiments, pigeons received autoshaping with various combinations of three stimuli, A, B, and C, before test trials in which responding during all three stimuli, ABC, was compared with that during a three-element control compound, DEF, which had been consistently paired with food. Pairing A, B, and C individually with food resulted in similar rates of responding during ABC and DEF (Experiments 1 and 2). Responding was faster, however, during ABC than during DEF after training in which food was signaled by the pairs of stimuli (AB, AC, and BC; Experiment 1). Responding was also faster during ABC than during DEF after training involving reinforced (+) and nonreinforced (°) trials of the form ABC+ A° BC°, followed by A+ BC+ (Experiment 2), or AB+ BC+ B° (Experiments 3 and 4). The results are consistent with those of a configural analysis of summation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mechanisms underlying spontaneous recovery in autoshaping.

Four experiments used an autoshaping preparation with pigeons to examine the mechanisms underlying spontaneous recovery following extinction training. Experiment 1 served to establish the optimum conditions for studying recovery in autoshaping. Experiments 2 and 3 demonstrated that recovery occurs during testing in the middle of a session in the presence of contextual cues uniquely associated with extinction. Such findings are inconsistent with several popular models of extinction. Experiment 4 involved endowing a stimulus with both excitatory and inhibitory properties. Both properties were reduced by extinction training and then recovered after a delay. This result is inconsistent with the notion that extinction training generates inhibitory associations that fade over time. However, it supports the idea that extinction results in a temporary reduction in processing of the conditioned stimulus. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Redundant treatment of neutral and excitatory stimuli in autoshaping.

Five autoshaping experiments with pigeons exposed excitatory and neutral stimuli to treatments that made those stimuli uninformative with respect to the unconditioned stimulus (US). Experiment 1 found that adding sufficient USs in the absence of the conditioned stimulus (CS) to make it uninformative prevented conditioning of that CS but did not undermine conditioning of a previously trained CS. Experiment 2 found a similar data pattern when an excitatory or neutral B stimulus was embedded in an A+/BA+ paradigm with an excitatory A. Experiments 3–5 verified that finding when the salience of A and B or the conditioning level of B was varied. These results, which are largely unanticipated by current theories of conditioning, suggest that the consequences of making a stimulus redundant depend on its conditioning level prior to that treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An analysis of contingencies in the Appalachian coalfields

The history of the Appalachian coalfields points to the inescapable conclusion that affluence and deprivation alternate according to the demand for coal in the national economy. Although this process has frequently been described, it has never been adequately or comprehensively conceptualized. If, however, the region is viewed in terms of contingencies selecting responses, it is possible to regard the population as operating according to a variable-interval schedule. Implications of such a schedule and recommendations for redesigning the contingencies are made.     

Pavlovian contingencies and temporal information.

The effects of altering the contingency between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) on the acquisition of autoshaped responding was investigated by changing the frequency of unsignaled USs during the intertrial interval. The addition of the unsignaled USs had an effect on acquisition speed comparable with that of massing trials. The effects of these manipulations can be understood in terms of their effect on the amount of information (number of bits) that the average CS conveys to the subject about the timing of the next US. The number of reinforced CSs prior to acquisition is inversely related to the information content of the CS. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An alternative interpretation of oneness.

Comments on L. H. Silverman and J. Weinberger's (see record 1986-15022-001) interpretation of their data as supporting the concept that subliminally induced gratification of wishes can enhance adaptation in both schizophrenic (SCZ) and non-SCZ individuals. This interpretation was strongly biased by Silverman and Weinberger's original intent. An alternative interpretation of their data is proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of signaling intertrial unconditioned stimuli in autoshaping.

Context–UCS associations have been suggested as the mediator of the response decrement that occurs when extra UCSs are added to the intertrial intervals (ITIs) of a standard Pavlovian conditioning situation. The present autoshaping experiments were concerned with the effect of signaling those extra UCSs, since such signaling might be expected to lessen their ability to condition the context. In Exp I, 16 female Carneaux pigeons were trained in Skinner boxes before receiving pretraining with the CS to be used as the signal of the ITI UCSs. During the main training, Ss were given autoshaping with a keylight CS. Exp II used a tone CS with 31 Ss. Results show that signaling the ITI UCSs did reduce their detrimental effects in responding to the CS. To determine whether that reduction was due to an impact of signaling on the target-CS/UCS association or on performance to the target-CS, Exp III examined responding to differentially trained CSs in a common context, as well as responding to identically trained CSs in differentially trained contexts with 32 Ss. More responding occurred to the CS trained with signaled, as compared with unsignaled, ITI UCSs; further, there was more responding to that CS in the more highly valued context. Results suggest that contextual value does interact with CS–UCS learning and may also affect performance to the CS. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Significant others and contingencies of self-worth: Activation and consequences of relationship-specific contingencies of self-worth.

Three studies tested the activation and consequences of contingencies of self-worth associated with specific significant others, that is, relationship-specific contingencies of self-worth. The results showed that activating the mental representation of a significant other with whom one strongly desires closeness led participants to stake their self-esteem in domains in which the significant other wanted them to excel. This was shown in terms of self-reported contingencies of self-worth (Study 1), in terms of self-worth after receiving feedback on a successful or unsatisfactory performance in a relationship-specific contingency domain (Study 2), and in terms of feelings of reduced self-worth after thinking about a failure in a relationship-specific contingency domain (Study 3). Across studies, a variety of contingency domains were examined. Furthermore, Study 3 showed that failing in an activated relationship-specific contingency domain had negative implications for current feelings of closeness and acceptance in the significant-other relationship. Overall, the findings suggest that people’s contingencies of self-worth depend on the social situation and that performance in relationship-specific contingency domains can influence people’s perceptions of their relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The shape memory mechanism and related phenomena in Ag-45at.%Cd

The shape memory behavior of an internally twinned 2H martensite has been investigated in detail. As with the untwinned R martensites, the AgCd martensite forms in self-accommodating groups of four variants. Upon application of a stress below the M_f temperature (−85°C) the following processes, not necessarily exclusive of each other, occur: rearrangement of twins within each variant (detwinning); variant-to-variant coalescence within a given group; and group-to-group coalescence. The end result of these processes is always a single variant orientation; the martensite becomes a single crystal of the variant most favorably disposed with respect to the applied tensile stress. This result is always obtained even though different types of within-group deformation processes occur.Pseudoelastic behavior occurring above the A_f temperature (− 50°C) was also investigated and found to be associated with two different stress-induced martensitic transformations, a β₁ to β₁′ transformation well above the A_f and a β₁ to γ₁′ transformation closer to the A_f temperature. This can be explained on the basis of a temperature stress-phase diagram.     

Behavioral contingencies and self-mutilation in Lesch-Nyhan disease.

Lesch-Nyhan syndrome is a rare, sex-linked, recessive disease that is accompanied by severe self-mutilation, especially finger biting. Evidence is presented suggesting that parental response patterns may contribute to the genesis of the self-injurious behavior (SIB). The therapeutic effectiveness of punishment, positive reinforcement of either SIB or non-SIB, and time-out learning paradigms were evaluated in 5 Ss aged 3–13 yrs. Electric skin shock failed to suppress the behavior. Positive reinforcement of non-self-injury and time-out from social reinforcement were consistently and rapidly effective, indicating a complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors in the production of SIB. Elimination or major reductions in incidence of SIB was maintained during follow-up periods of 2 yrs. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bias in interpretation of ambiguous sentences related to threat in anxiety.

In the 1st of 2 experiments, currently clinically anxious, recovered clinically anxious, and normal control Ss were presented with a mixture of unambiguous sentences; both threatening and nonthreatening interpretations were possible for the latter. A subsequent recognition-memory test indicated that the currently anxious Ss were more likely than normal control and recovered anxious Ss to interpret the ambiguous sentences in a threatening fashion rather than in a nonthreatening fashion. This suggests that the biased interpretation of ambiguity found in currently anxious Ss reflected their anxious mood state. A 2nd experiment established that the difference in interpretative processes between currently anxious and control Ss was not due to response bias and that the interpretative bias was a reasonably general one. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychosomatic phenomena: An extension of Wright.

Comments on L. Wright's (see record 1978-12629-001) discussion of the shortcomings of the traditional concept of psychosomatic disorders (PSD). The concept of PSD is outmoded because it sets up a false dichotomy by suggesting that few physical disorders are caused by psychological factors. Current evidence indicates that psychosocial factors are of varying importance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of a stimulus intervening between CS and US in autoshaping.

Five experiments explored the effect of placing a stimulus between the termination of a key light (CS) and the onset of a food (UCS) with female Carneaux pigeons in an autoshaping preparation. Whether that stimulus was itself a key light evoking pecking or an auditory event failing to evoke pecking, it facilitated performance to the CS. The use of a within-Ss design made differential conditioning of background cues and stimulus generalization unlikely accounts. Exp III found that extinction of the intervening stimulus did not remove the facilitative effect. Exp IV found that pairing the CS with food and the intervening stimulus did not produce the effect unless both occurred on the same trial. Together, these experiments rule out an account in terms of 2nd-order conditioning of the CS by the intervening stimulus. Exp V used an intervening stimulus in a 2nd-order conditioning design to demonstrate that the stimulus acted to improve the association between the CS and the reinforcer. Results document a kind of catalytic effect of the intervening stimulus on the CS-reinforcer association. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stimulus and response contingencies in the misbehavior of rats.

Misbehavior by rats was produced in Exps I (16 Wistar female albino rats) and II (15 Sprague-Dawley female albino rats) by pairing a ball bearing with food or by requiring contact with the ball bearing for food (Exps IV, 6 Ss, and V, 11 Ss). Misbehavior occurred before and after eating the food pellet. The frequency, complexity, and duration of prepellet misbehavior was increased by delay of food until after the ball bearing exited (or was programmed to exit) and by requiring contact with the bearing to obtain food. Alternative goal-directed behaviors occurred in Pavlovian contingencies in which food was delivered before the bearing was programmed to exit. Postpellet misbehavior tended to occur when food was delivered before the bearing was programmed to exit and before S released the bearing. Omission of food delivery on contact reduced the duration, complexity, and frequency of misbehavior, although experienced Ss continued to contact (Exp III, 15 Ss). Misbehavior was affected by both stimulus- and response-reward contingencies but showed characteristic organization and topography under both types of contingency. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of context in performance on a random schedule in autoshaping.

In 3 experiments an autoshaping preparation was used to explore the role of the training context in performance to a randomly trained keylight tested elsewhere. A recent model of conditioned performance advanced by Miller and Schachtman (1985) holds that performance to a conditioned stimulus (CS) is inversely related to the updated value of its training context, regardless of the location of testing. A CS trained in a random relation to the unconditioned stimulus (US), therefore, might be expected to control either excitatory or inhibitory tendencies, depending on the value subsequently assigned to its training context. Experiment 1 revealed no evidence for such a prediction using keylight stimuli trained initially on a random schedule. Subsequent inflation or deflation of the training context endowed the stimuli with neither inhibitory nor excitatory properties. Exp 2 yielded similar results for a keylight given excitatory properties prior to being placed on a random schedule. Finally, Exp 3 produced similar evidence in a design using temporally discrete stimuli to model the functional role of the context in a random schedule. The implications of these results for other models of performance on random schedules (e.g., Gibbon & Balsam, 1981; Rescorla & Wagner, 1972) are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of novelty of copulatory behavior: The Coolidge effect and related phenomena.

Posits that the degree of novelty of both mating partner and mating situation can be of great importance to the sexual behavior of animals under some circumstances. The "Coolidge effect" (J. R. Wilson et al, see record 1963-07859-001) can be defined as the restoration of mating behavior in males that have reached sexual satiation with 1 female and show a restoration of mating behavior when the original female is replaced with a novel female. Information on the Coolidge effect has recently been used in extrapolations to human behavior to predict monogamy in different species and in a sociobiological context. The literature on the Coolidge effect is reviewed critically, and various complexities and inconsistencies are discussed. Studies utilizing different paradigms, including the Coolidge effect, changes of female prior to satiety, multi-female tests, between-test changes of female, changes of environment, and choice situations, should be consistently differentiated. Results differ as a function of species, paradigm, and testing conditions. (100 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An analysis of pilot flying performance in terms of component abilities.

"Measures of flying proficiency in 24 separate maneuvers were obtained on a sample of student pilots. The intercorrelations among these maneuver performances were subjected to factor analytic study. The interrelationships were best interpreted in terms of ability factors, most of which had been identified previously in laboratory studies of experimental perceptual-motor tasks. The factors were identified as Control Precision, Spatial Orientation, Multilimb Coordination, Response Orientation, Rate Control, and Kinesthetic Discrimination. The results seem to indicate the usefulness of such ability categories in describing complex skills. Similar analyses of the interrelationships among component performance measures of other complex jobs may provide one way of defining the ability requirements underlying proficiency in those jobs." (33 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)