Training and transfer in combinatorial problem solving: The development of formal reasoning during early adolescence.

Studied training and transfer effects in combinatorial problem solving to explore the emergence of combinatorial competence as an aspect of the development of formal reasoning and to examine the effectiveness of a training procedure based on principles of "programmed discovery." 80 12-14 yr olds participated in a pretest, 2 training or placebo sessions, an immediate posttest, and a delayed posttest 2 mo later. Significant increases in combinatorial skill with age were shown, and the expression of this skill was significantly facilitated if problems involved "concrete" material of low complexity. With the oldest Ss, training produced significant improvements in performance on combinatorial tasks that were markedly different from the training items in both content and modality. Significant improvements over time and with practice were also evident with the older Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of aptitudes, strategy training, and task facets on spatial task performance.

A pilot study, with 8 high school students, demonstrated that 3 item characteristics accounted for most of the variation in item difficulty in a paper-folding task: number of folds, number of obscured folds, and number of asymmetric folds. Retrospective reports suggested that Ss employed 2 strategies when attempting to solve these items: a visualization strategy and an analytic strategy. In the main experiment, these 2 strategies were demonstrated via motion picture models; 24 Ss received visualization training, and 24 received analytic training. Training effects of the demonstration films were compared with a performance feedback condition given to 8 Ss. All Ss performed 74 paper-folding items and 60 surface development transfer items following treatment. Error and latency data suggested that the treatments affected strategy selection and efficiency on both tasks. Treatment effects depended on item characteristics and response mode as well as on Ss' fluid-analytic/visualization and verbal abilities, as assessed by the Concept Mastery Test, WAIS Vocabulary test, and Raven Progressive Matrices. Sex differences were also noted, with verbal ability being important in the performance of females but not males. Implications for a process theory of human abilities are discussed. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Experience-dependent recovery of visuospatial functioning in older alcoholic persons.

Exposed 2 groups of alcoholic males to verbal and visuospatial paired-associate learning tasks known to be sensitive to alcohol dysfunction. Group 1, with 16 Ss (mean age 52.19 yrs), received 4 task administrations 3–4 days apart, beginning 4 days after drinking stopped. Group 2, with 14 Ss (mean age 49.79 yrs), received identical administration beginning 16 days after drinking stopped. An alternate form of the tasks was administered at the final session to assess transfer of training. Two matched nonalcoholic control groups of 12 Ss each (mean age 50.79 yrs) established normative performance on both forms of the tasks. Although the alcoholic Ss' verbal learning was unimpaired, visuospatial functioning was equally impaired initially in both alcoholic groups despite differing periods of abstinence, indicating the lack of time-dependent recovery. However, practice with the visuospatial task resulted in improved visuospatial performance and positive transfer of training not significantly different from normal Ss. It is suggested that since alcoholism treatment outcome is related to neuropsychological status, rehabilitation of cognitive functioning may improve treatment success. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generalization from categorical memory tasks to prose by learning disabled adolescents.

Investigated how 60 learning disabled ([LD] aged 12 yrs to 14 yrs 5 mo) and 20 age-matched nondisabled (NLD) Ss would transfer the use of 4 study rules from instructed materials (pictures) to a prose recall task. Four phases spread over a 3-wk period were involved: pretest, informational phase (2 lessons), individualized training (3 lessons), and posttest. Results show that LDs performed poorly relative to NLD peers at pretest on categorical picture and prose recall tasks. 20 LD Ss who received rule-only instruction and 20 LD Ss who received rule-plus-prose examples instruction surpassed 20 LD Ss in the control condition at posttest on the picture task in rule use and in recall. On the prose task, a majority of the instructed LD Ss demonstrated transfer of the instructed rules. As a group, the instructed LD Ss no longer differed observably from NLD Ss in recall or in the strategies they employed to study and to retrieve. The clinical view that LD Ss are characterized by a failure to generalize was not supported by these findings. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rules as tools: Effective generalization of verbal self-regulative communication training by first-grade speakers.

Tested whether referential communication training of young speakers can be generalized to novel tasks. 19 1st graders were taught to use 2 general communication rules through a verbal self-regulation procedure. Three groups were tested: a practice control and 2 training groups. In the 1st training group, Ss were trained on 2 tasks. In the 2nd group, Ss received the same training but in only 1 context. Results show that both training groups performed better than the controls on both direct training posttests and novel generalization tasks, immediately as well as 2 wks later. However, there were no significant differences between the 2 training groups. It is concluded that verbal self-regulation training appears to be a promising means of obtaining generalizaion of speaking skills in young children, in support of findings by D. Meichenbaum and J. Goodman (see record 1971-23785-001). (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compliance with a leader's suggestions as a function of perceived leader/member competence and potential reciprocity.

Examined with 80 male undergraduates the effects of perceived leader/group member competence and potential reciprocity on group member compliance with a leader's task suggestions. Ss worked in 5-person nominal groups on 2 construction tasks. A confederate was always appointed leader by a bogus random selection procedure. Perceived leader and group member competence were manipulated through bogus performance feedback following the 1st task. Ss received a written suggestion from the leader before the 2nd task that called for an assembly line procedure. Potential reciprocity was manipulated by the leader's request or refusal to see Ss' own suggestions. Compliance was measured through observer coding of Ss' performance on the 2nd task. Ss in the high leader competence/low group member competence condition compiled significantly more than did Ss in all other conditions. Internal analysis revealed that reciprocity was positively related to compliance among Ss with high-quality task suggestions and negatively related to compliance among those with low-quality suggestions. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conserving and retaining equalities and inequalities through observation and correction.

Investigated the effects of modeling and corrective feedback on the conservation of equalities and inequalities, with items spanning 3 stimulus dimensions (length, number, and 2-dimensional space). Ss were 48 kindergartners (24 boys, 24 girls). Brief observation of a model, briefer correction training (joining positive feedback with verbal rule provision), and the combination of observation and correction were all successful in producing learning and, without further training, transfer and retention of conservation. Unlike the controls (who also never correctly answered any equality items), the trained experimental Ss gave evidence of spontaneously generalizing their new learning to a task that required nonverbal behavior to manifest conservation. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enhancement of conjunctive concept attainment in older adults.

Studied 30 community-dwelling females (mean age, 71.4 yrs) to determine whether older adults' performance on a complex concept identification task could be enhanced through training designed to promote the use of a specific problem-solving strategy. Ss were assigned to 1 of 3 groups (training, practice, or control) and were tested individually on the pretest problem followed by the posttest problem 4 days later, with the relevant dimensions used in these problems counterbalanced. Ss were given detailed instructions on all facets of the task. Stimulus cards were presented one at a time, with as much time as needed for response. Ss in the control condition were given only the pre- and posttest problems. The training and practice groups all received 3 additional sessions. Statistical analysis on transformed trials to criterion showed significant main effects due to treatment. The substantially enhanced performance of the trained Ss indicates that a training procedure combining operant and cumulative learning hierarchy principles effectively promoted elderly Ss' use of an appropriate bidimensional conjunctive concept identification strategy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the relative effects of positive and negative verbal feedback on males' and females' intrinsic motivation.

Assessed the relative effects of positive and negative feedback on males' and females' intrinsic motivation and attempted to replicate findings by the present authors (see record 1984-30609-001) regarding the mediating effects of feelings of competence on the verbal feedback/intrinsic motivation relation. 30 male and 30 female undergraduates performed an interesting task and received either positive or negative feedback relative to their performance. Ss then filled out intrinsic motivation and feelings of competence scales. Results show that, relative to negative feedback, positive feedback led to higher levels of intrinsic motivation and competence feelings for both males and females. Results of the path analysis involving verbal feedback, competence feelings, and intrinsic motivation revealed a picture clearly in line with a mediating model. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Observational learning of quantity conservation and Piagetian generalization tasks.

20 1st graders who had scored 9 or less on a pretest of 8 Piagetian criterion tasks were divided into control and experimental groups. Experimental Ss underwent an observational learning phase in which a model correctly performed the 1st task used in the pretest, giving correct conservation judgments supported by justifications alternately based on identity, compensation, or reversibility considerations. All Ss were given the same 8 Piagetian tasks used in the pretest on immediate, 1-wk, and 3-mo delayed posttests. The experimental group generalized conservation to several tasks. One category of Ss behaved as rote learners and maintained conservation only for tasks closely similar to the modeled task and on immediate and 1-wk delayed posttest; a 2nd group of genuine conservers progressively generalized the conservation rule to more difficult tasks. The control group remained nonconserving throughout. Results are explained with reference to the Piagetian concept of sequential equilibration. The social experience of observation appeared to activate a cognitive restructuring of the Ss' mental operations. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Persistence and the causal perception of failure: Modifying cognitive attributions.

In a 2-phase study with a total of 159 6th graders, the relation of persistence behavior to the causal perception of failure was examined. Ss were administered a battery of tests, including the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Scale, a modified version of the Perceptual Reasoning Test, and a circle design task. Results of Phase 1 show that temporal persistence and resistance to extinction were positively related to the attribution of failure to insufficient effort and negatively related to attributions to ability and task difficulty by both males and females. In Phase 2, the males who least frequently attributed failure to lack of effort (42 Ss) were randomly allocated to a control group or a social reinforcement group or a token plus social reinforcement attribution retraining group. At immediate and delayed posttests, experimental Ss attributed success and failure on the training task and 2 independent transfer tasks to effort significantly more than did controls. A significant increase from pretest levels on both persistence indexes paralleled the attributional change of experimental Ss. No difference was evident in the effectiveness of the 2 experimental treatments. Despite some attenuation on the transfer tasks, there was evidence of durability of training effects, and generalization of effects to an independent tester at a further 4-mo follow-up posttest. Results provide support for the attribution model of achievement motivation and provide an empirical foundation for the rationale of attribution retraining programs. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expectations for success on effort-determined tasks as a function of incentive and performance feedback.

Conducted 2 experiments to investigate an attributional analysis of the consequences of perceiving one's effort as stable, as opposed to unstable, on future performance expectancies. In Exp I, 32 male undergraduates were told that performance on the experimental tasks was purely effort determined; they expected a monetary incentive for good performance on half the tasks and received preprogrammed feedback that their performance was either variable or consistent. In Exp II, both 45 male and 51 female Ss believed the tasks were either effort or ability determined and received variable or consistent feedback; incentive was operationalized as the level of task interestingness. As predicted, Ss who believed performance was effort determined and received variable feedback had higher expectations for performance on a later task when its incentive value was high than when it was low. Ss receiving consistent feedback did not differ in their expectations, regardless of the incentive value of the task. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Improving memory performance in the aged through mnemonic training: A meta-analytic study.

The effectiveness of memory training for the elderly was examined through a meta-analysis of pre- to posttest gains on episodic memory tasks in healthy Ss (aged 60+ yrs). Pre- to posttest gains were found to be significantly larger in training groups (0.73 SD, k?=?49) than in both control (0.38 SD, k?=?10) and placebo (0.37 SD, k?=?8) groups. Treatment gains in training groups were negatively affected by age of participants and duration of training sessions and positively affected by group treatment, pretraining, and memory-related interventions. No differences in treatment gain were obtained as a function of type of mnemonic taught nor the kind of pretraining used. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Experience in experiments and change in internal-external control scores.

Assigned 150 undergraduates to (a) verbal conditioning experiments in which Ss felt they had control of their performance, (b) verbal conditioning experiments in which Ss felt they had no control, and (c) control experiments in which Ss wrote TAT stories. Pre- and posttest scores on the Internal-External Control Scale (J. Rotter) were compared for each group. As predicted, Ss in the internally oriented experiments increased in internal control, and Ss in the externally oriented experiments increased in external control (p     

Effects of labels on the perception and discrimination learning of retardates.

Assessed the role of labels in perception in 54 familial retardates and 48 normal IQ children at 2 matched MA levels. 3 experimental manipulations were employed at each level in a factorial design. 1 group learned to associate a common label to random visual forms; a 2nd group learned distinctive labels to the same forms; finally, a 3rd group viewed the forms without labels. Following verbal training, all Ss received perceptual judgment and discrimination-learning tasks. No significant differences emerged between the retarded and normal Ss on paired-associate learning, discrimination learning, or perceptual accuracy without labels. In contrast to the normal children, however, the retardates' perceptual and learning processes were relatively unaffected by the learning of verbal levels. (16 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assertion training with handicapped persons.

Investigated the effects of assertion training in 9 handicapped college students and 5 handicapped discharged rehabilitative medicare outpatients. Ss were matched on self-reported assertiveness and were assigned to 1 of 2 groups: (a) treatment Ss who received assertion training, and (b) waiting-list-control Ss who received no treatment for 5 wks and then received assertion training. Behavioral role playing, self-report, and activity budget pre- and posttest measures revealed that assertion-training Ss reported significantly greater gains in assertive behavior and showed greater improvement in performance on 7 criterion measures than did control Ss. 18 criterion measures did not show any differences between treatment and control groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-verbalization versus tutor verbalization in modifying impulsivity.

Used verbal self-instruction in training 122 impulsive (as determined by their performance on the Matching Familiar Figures Test--MFFT), 1st graders to perform visual discrimination matching tasks. The effects of self-verbalization (as opposed to tutor verbalization) and strategy training were compared through the employment of 4 training conditions: verbal self-instruction and strategy training, strategy training, verbal self-instruction, and material control. Immediate posttests, following each of the 4 individual training sessions, showed that while strategy training increased latency, self-verbalization both increased latency and reduced errors. The MFF posttest revealed no significant differences. It is suggested that the training period was too short to effect transfer. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Strategy training and attributional feedback with learning disabled students.

Investigated the effects of verbalization of subtraction with regrouping operations and effort-attributional feedback on the self-efficacy and skillful performance of 90 Ss (aged 11 yrs 2 mo to 16 yrs 2 mo) in Grades 6–8 who were classified as learning disabled in mathematics. Ss received training and solved problems over sessions. Ss in the 1st condition verbalized aloud while solving problems (continuous verbalization), those in the 2nd condition verbalized only during the 1st half of training (discontinued verbalization), and those in the 3rd condition did not verbalize (no verbalization). All Ss were periodically monitored and received effort feedback during the 1st half of training, effort feedback during the 2nd half of training, or no effort feedback. Findings show that continuous verbalization led to higher self-efficacy and skillful performance than did discontinued and no verbalization; providing effort feedback promoted these achievement behaviors more than not providing feedback did. Effort feedback during the 1st half of training enhanced effort attributions. The process by which verbalization promotes achievement outcomes is discussed. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Long-term effects of fluid ability training in old-old age.

This study examined the effects of multiple phases of cognitive training on older adults' intellectual performance over a 7-year period as Ss advanced from young-old to old-old age. The study involved a pretest–posttest/no-treatment control-group design. At each of 3 training phases, conducted in 1979, 1981, and 1986, Ss received 5 training sessions on the fluid ability of figural relations. Participants (N?=?38) had a mean age of 69 yrs (range?=?63–80) at the onset of the study. Results showed that (1) significant training effects occurred at each of the 3 study phases, when Ss had mean ages of 69, 71, and 77 yrs; (2) the largest training gains were made in the 1st training phase; and (3) as a function of multiple phases of training, Ss in their 70s and early 80s performed significantly above their baseline level of figural relations performance 7 yrs previously. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of desensitization treatment on core-condition training.

Tested the prediction that training for helping skills when paired with desensitization treatment will improve significantly the posttest ratings of the trainee's helping function. 2 groups of 9 male and 7 female adult trainees each were matched systematically and trained over a 6-wk period to function in a helping role. Ss received preliminary training in empathy, respect, concreteness, and genuineness. Following preliminary training, the experimental group received 1 wk. of desensitization treatment; the control group did not. Both the control and experimental Ss proceeded to a 6-wk advanced training in empathy, respect, concreteness, and genuineness. Results of pre- and posttest ratings on measures of helping skills in the preliminary and advanced training indicate a significant training effect was obtained for both groups. Desensitization treatment was a significant source of variance for the experimental Ss in training (p