The development of cognitive skills and gains in academic school readiness for children from low-income families.

This study examined developmental associations between growth in domain-general cognitive processes (working memory and attention control) and growth in domain-specific skills (emergent literacy and numeracy) across the prekindergarten year and their relative contributions to kindergarten reading and math achievement. One hundred sixty-four Head Start children (44% African American or Latino; 57% female) were followed longitudinally. Path analyses revealed that working memory and attention control predicted growth in emergent literacy and numeracy skills during the prekindergarten year and that growth in these domain-general cognitive skills made unique contributions to the prediction of kindergarten math and reading achievement, controlling for growth in domain-specific skills. These findings extend research highlighting the importance of working memory and attention control for academic learning, demonstrating the effects in early childhood, prior to school entry. Implications of these findings for prekindergarten programs are discussed, particularly those designed to reduce the school readiness gaps associated with socioeconomic disadvantage. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's perceptions of their own and their classmates' ability.

64 children in kindergarten through 3rd grade rated their own and their classmates' "smartness" and nominated classmates who were the best and worst at specific tasks and the best and worst thinkers in the classroom. These ratings were then compared to 12 teachers' classification of the Ss as low or high achievers. Only the 2nd and 3rd graders' ratings of their own ability reflected their teachers' ratings and were correlated to classmates' ratings of their ability. At all grade levels, Ss' ratings of their classmates reflected teachers' ratings of the academic status of the child being rated. Responses to open-ended questions concerning the criteria Ss used in evaluating their own smartness revealed that older Ss most often provided examples of their performance on specific tasks to justify their self-ratings, whereas younger Ss most frequently explained their self-ratings on the basis of their work habits (e.g., following directions). Work habits were also given as the most common explanation for peer smartness ratings. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predictive value of teachers' ratings of young children.

Assessed the relation of teachers' ratings of young children's abilities, classroom skills, and personal-social characteristics to achievement (Wide Range Achievement Test) in school. Teachers' ratings of 217 children were obtained in the fall and spring of kindergarten and again in 2nd and 3rd grades. By the end of the 3rd grade, 146 children remained in the sample. A total of 63 teachers participated. Predictive validity of the ratings was high for both concurrent and subsequent achievement by the children. The sum of 4 ratings (Effective Learning, Retaining Information, Vocabulary, and Following Instructions) predicted achievement nearly as well as the entire battery of ratings. Average ratings were consistently higher for girls than for boys. Ratings made by mothers were less predictive of scholastic success than ratings made by teachers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in beliefs and achievement: A cross-cultural study.

Gender differences on tests of achievement in reading and mathematics, and on tests of cognitive ability, were assessed. Ss were children in kindergarten and Grades 1 and 5 in elementary schools in Taiwan, Japan, and the US (ns?=?1,975 to 4,266). Few gender differences were observed on curriculum-based tests of math computation and reading. Boys were more effective, however, in solving word problems and in answering questions involving estimation, visualization, and measurement. Cognitive tests revealed some gender differences at the 5th-grade level in all 3 cultures. Children and their mothers tended, as early as the 1st grade, to believe that boys were better at math and girls were better at reading. Children in the 3 cultures differed consistently in their scores in reading and math, but there were very few interactions between gender and location. The lack of frequent significant interactions between gender and location indicated the gender effects for both achievement scores and ratings were equivalent across Chinese, Japanese, and American contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-concept and peer acceptance in students with learning disabilities: A four- to five-year prospective study.

Examined the peer relations and self-concepts of students prior to and following their identification by the school district as learning disabled (LD) in a 4- to 5-yr prospective study. Self-concept ratings (kindergarten–4th grade) and peer acceptance ratings (kindergarten–3rd grade), as well as academic achievement scores, were compared across 3 groups: LD students who were placed in resource special education programs during 2nd grade, low-achieving (LA) students, and average-achieving/high-achieving (AA/HA) students. For peer acceptance, AA/HA students' scores were higher than LA students' scores only. No between-groups differences were obtained during any school year on the self-concept measure. Findings suggest that LD students' self-perceptions are not negatively affected by academic and social difficulties in the early grades or by the identification and labeling process. Though generalization is limited by the small sample size, few studies have examined students with learning disabilities longitudinally or prior to and following their identification. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reticent primary grade children and their more talkative peers: Verbal, nonverbal, and self-concept characteristics.

This report describes research with 128 kindergarten children, the purpose of which was to assess the stability of verbal behavior and the relationship of verbal and nonverbal abilities and self-concept to talkativeness in the classroom. The children were divided into verbal and quiet groups on the basis of teacher rankings in the fall of kindergarten. Rankings in the spring term indicated that about one third of the quiet children became more verbal, thus making for a subdivision of the quiet children into the "reticent" group, who remained quiet, and the "mixed" group, who became more talkative. This distinction proved important because reticent children obtained lower parental ratings of communication skills at home and lower scores on a variety of language tests administered in Grade 1 than did verbal children; the mixed group obtained intermediate scores. No differences were observed among reticent, mixed, and verbal children on a general measure of self-concept. These findings are discussed in light of the literatures on shyness and classroom discourse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting school achievement from data on pupils obtained from teachers: Towards a screening device for disadvantage.

Home background, cognitive, and emotional characteristics of 220 5-yr-old disadvantaged Irish children were measured with a questionnaire sent to teachers shortly after Ss entered school. These characteristics were then related to scores on standardized tests of mathematics, English, and intelligence administered after 3 yrs of school. MANOVAs indicated that performance at 8 yrs of age could be predicted with considerable accuracy by a combination of teachers' ratings of Ss' home and personal characteristics at 5 yrs of age. Teachers' ratings of Ss' personal characteristics were better predictors of performance than were their ratings of home background or status. Performances on the English and intelligence tests were better predicted than performance on the mathematics test. The construction of a pilot screening device based on the predictor variables used in the present study is advocated. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Causal attributions of learning-disabled children: Developmental patterns and relation to academic progress.

The relation of school-identified learning-disabled (LD) children's achievement attributions to their academic progress and an examination of developmental patterns of their attributional styles were investigated in these longitudinal studies. Attributions were measured with two scales on which children attributed hypothetical academic failure situations to causes that varied on dimensions of locus, stability, and controllability. Academic progress was indexed by changes in achievement test scores over a 2-year span and by teachers' ratings of students' success and classroom behavior. In accordance with Weiner's theory of achievement motivation, LD children who attributed failures to variant, controllable causes made the greatest achievement gains and were rated by teachers as exhibiting the most appropriate classroom behavior. Comparison of developmental patterns of attributions between LD and nondisabled children did not support the hypothesis that LD children enter a self-perpetuating failure cycle; nor were previously reported findings of sex differences within the LD group replicated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Low and high mathematics achievement in Japanese, Chinese, and American elementary-school children.

This study investigated factors associated with low and high levels of achievement in mathematics. Chinese, Japanese, and American first- and fifth-grade children who received scores in the top or bottom deciles of a mathematics test were given tests of intellectual ability and reading achievement, and the children and their mothers were interviewed. There were large overall differences in the mean level of mathematics achievement among the three locations. High mathematics achievers in all three locations received higher average scores on the intellectual ability tests than did the average mathematics achievers, who in turn received higher scores than low-achievers. In all three locations, mothers' ratings of their children's intellectual abilities and of their own abilities in mathematics varied directly with the children's level of achievement in mathematics. Taken together, the results indicate that factors associated with levels of achievement in mathematics operate in a similar fashion across three cultures that differ greatly in their children's level of mathematics achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Kindergarten competencies as predictors of third-grade classroom behavior and achievement.

To investigate the relationships between preschool competencies and later academic functioning, multiple regression analyses were conducted using kindergarten intellectual, academic, and social variables (Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Wide Range Achievement Test, teacher ratings of academic readiness, and the Sells Teacher Rating Scale of Peer Relations) to predict 3rd-grade classroom behavior and achievement. A random sample (n?=?50) of 184 3rd-grade children evaluated during the 1973–1974 kindergarten year and a 2nd sample (n?=?49) with additional Time 1 social and background variables were included. Ss were observed in classrooms and administered achievement tests during the 1976–1977 school year. Results indicate that kindergarten social and academic competencies typically entered as optimal predictors of later achievement-related behaviors and achievement. A social competence measure of initiative was a particularly successful predictor of achievement. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's judgments of their own and their peers' academic competence.

A standardized open-ended interview was used to study how 96 4–8 yr old children judged their own and their classmates' abilities. Ss were asked to explain how they knew who in their class was best and who was worst at various tasks and who was the best and who was the worst thinker. Ss also rated themselves and their classmates on how smart each was and explained their ratings. Content analyses of responses revealed that younger Ss, particularly males, were more likely than older Ss to refer to sociability in their ability judgments; they were less likely to base their judgments on social comparisons or on the difficulty level of the task. Ss at all age levels frequently explained ability judgments in terms of effort or work habits, although work habits tended to be referred to less by preschool-age Ss than by older Ss. Ss' ratings of their own ability declined with grade; ratings for peers were lower than self-ratings and did not change as a function of grade level. Self-ability ratings of Ss in kindergarten through the 3rd grade and their ratings of classmates were significantly correlated to teacher ratings of relative academic standing. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preschool measures of self-esteem and achievement motivation as predictors of third-grade achievement.

Longitudinal data on 404 children from predominantly low-income areas in 3 regionally distinct sites were used to determine (a) the relation of preschool, kindergarten, and 1st-grade measures of self-esteem and achievement motivation (the Brown IDS Self-Concept Referents Test and Gumpgookies, respectively) to reading, mathematics, and problem-solving (Raven Colored Progressive Matrices) performance in the 3rd grade; and (b) whether such measures can improve on predictions made solely from an early achievement measure (Caldwell's Preschool Inventory). Although the early self-esteem scores had a strong negative skew, they contributed significantly to predictions of 3rd-grade performance. However, the predictive variation in the scores may have represented differences in task understanding and attentiveness rather than differences in self-esteem. Achievement motivation scores, especially in the year prior to entrance into 1st grade, contributed significantly to predictions of later achievement. Results varied somewhat by sex, socioeconomic status, and geographical site. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early math matters: Kindergarten number competence and later mathematics outcomes.

Children’s number competencies over 6 time points, from the beginning of kindergarten to the middle of 1st grade, were examined in relation to their mathematics achievement over 5 later time points, from the end of 1st grade to the end of 3rd grade. The relation between early number competence and mathematics achievement was strong and significant throughout the study period. A sequential process growth curve model showed that kindergarten number competence predicted rate of growth in mathematics achievement between 1st and 3rd grades as well as achievement level through 3rd grade. Further, rate of growth in early number competence predicted mathematics performance level in 3rd grade. Although low-income children performed more poorly than their middle-income counterparts in mathematics achievement and progressed at a slower rate, their performance and growth were mediated through relatively weak kindergarten number competence. Similarly, the better performance and faster growth of children who entered kindergarten at an older age were explained by kindergarten number competence. The findings show the importance of early number competence for setting children’s learning trajectories in elementary school mathematics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nature–nurture in the classroom: Entrance age, school readiness, and learning in children.

The impact of entrance age on reading and mathematics achievement in 1st grade was examined. Methodological problems with past research were identified, including small size of achievement differences, failure to take background variables into account, and confusion of achievement levels with degree of learning. Using a pre–post design, growth of reading and mathematics was examined in younger 1st graders, older 1st graders, and older kindergarteners. Comparisons of background information on these groups with children who were either held out prior to or retained an extra year in kindergarten, produced minimal background differences. Results revealed that younger 1st graders made as much progress over the school year as did older 1st graders and made far more progress than older kindergarteners. Overall, findings demonstrated that, in itself, entrance age was not a good predictor of learning or academic risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting Improvement After First-Grade Reading Difficulties: The Effects of Oral Language, Emergent Literacy, and Behavior Skills.

This study investigated the role of early literacy and behavioral skills in predicting the improvement of children who have experienced reading difficulties in 1st grade. The progress of 146 low-income children whose reading scores in 1st grade were below the 30th percentile was examined to determine (a) how the poorest readers in 1st grade progressed in reading achievement through 4th grade and (b) which emergent literacy and behavioral skills measured in kindergarten predicted differential 4th grade outcomes. Results indicated that the divergence between children who improved and those who did not was established by the end of 2nd grade. Further, individual linguistic skills and behavioral attributes measured in kindergarten contributed substantively to this difference. Implications for intervention timing and educational policy are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Effect of School-Based Kindergarten Transition Policies and Practices on Child Academic Outcomes.

This study examined the effect of school-based kindergarten transition policies and practices on child outcomes. The authors followed 17,212 children from 992 schools in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten sample (ECLS-K) across the kindergarten school year. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that the number of school-based transition practices in the fall of kindergarten was associated with more positive academic achievement scores at the end of kindergarten, even controlling for family socioeconomic status (SES) and other demographic factors. This effect was stronger for low- and middle-SES children than high-SES children. For low-SES children, 7 transition practices were associated with a .21 standard deviation increase in predicted achievement scores beyond 0 practices. The effect of transition practices was partially mediated by an intervening effect on parent-initiated involvement in school during the kindergarten year. The findings support education policies to target kindergarten transition efforts to increase parent involvement in low-SES families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measurement or training: An examination of method in conservation studies.

Presents procedural considerations for measuring optimal performance of children on Piagetian tasks. A questioning sequence based on a hierarchy of subordinate capabilities is proposed, with supporting data from a study of 37 59-77 mo. old nursery school and kindergarten children that used such a sequence. It was found that questioning trials had little or no effect below age 66 mo., but did influence achievement of conservation concepts beyond that age. Transfer across tasks and retention of conservation concepts were observed in conservers. A rationale is proposed that explains the results in terms of measurement of optimal performance rather than successful training. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control and academic achievement: Results from a preschool intervention program.

Investigated the relationship between children's beliefs in personal control over their successes and failures and academic achievement. 32 kindergarten and 1st grade children who had been judged to be at risk for academic difficulties and who had participated in a 5-yr efficacy-oriented intervention program were compared to 34 children in high-risk nonintervention low-risk comparison groups. The high-risk intervention and low-risk Ss had stronger beliefs in personal control over academic success, and these beliefs were good predictors of achievement and task-related classroom behaviors. This was not true of the high-risk nonintervention Ss, in whom only IQ was related to achievement. IQ scores were not related to achievement in intervention Ss. The importance of motivational components of achievement is discussed and the influence of socializing environments in establishing relations among beliefs in personal control, subsequent goal-directed classroom behaviors, and achievement outcomes is noted. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nature-nurture in the classroom: entrance age, school readiness, and learning in children

The impact of entrance age on reading and mathematics achievement in 1st grade was examined. Methodological problems with past research were identified, including small size of achievement differences, failure to take background variables into account, and confusion of achievement levels with degree of learning. Using a pre-post design, growth of reading and mathematics was examined in younger 1st graders, older 1st graders, and older kindergarteners. Comparisons of background information on these groups with children who were either held out prior to or retained an extra year in kindergarten, produced minimal background differences. Results revealed that younger 1st graders made as much progress over the school year as did older 1st graders and made far more progress than older kindergarteners. Overall, findings demonstrated that, in itself, entrance age was not a good predictor of learning or academic risk.     

Age-related differences in children's perceptions of social deviance: Changes in behavior or in perspective?

Previous research by the present authors (see record 1985-14217-001) revealed grade-related changes in children's ratings of aggression and withdrawal in peers. The contributions to such changes of age-related differences in the perspective of the raters and in the behavior of the children rated were investigated. Study 1 examined 120 teachers' ratings of aggression and withdrawal in 1st-, 4th-, and 7th-grade children to assess effects of age of children rated. In contrast to earlier findings with peer raters, no differences were found across grade level in the organization of teacher ratings. Study 2 examined age of rater differences in 436 1st-, 4th-, and 7th-grade Ss' beliefs about behavior that might be displayed by hypothetical peers. Differences paralleled those observed earlier in children's actual peer ratings. Study 3 examined 351 1st- and 7th-grade Ss' ratings of peers who were older or younger than the raters to assess the influence of age of rater on Ss' ratings. Age of rater effects emerged even when Ss rated peers who were not their age mates. These findings suggest that differences across grade level reported in children's peer ratings largely reflect differences in the child raters' view of behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)