Teacher orientations toward masculine and feminine: Role of sex of teacher and sex composition of school.

296 teachers from both coeducational and single-sex high schools rated the acceptability of stereotypically feminine and masculine traits, indicated their preferences for teaching boys or girls, and completed a measure of their beliefs about teaching. Male and female Ss from both types of schools perceived feminine traits as more acceptable than masculine traits, although male and coeducational school teachers tended to be more tolerant of masculine characteristics than their respective counterparts. Despite the positive valuation of feminine traits, with the exception of female single-sex teachers, Ss tended to prefer male students over female students. Also, compared to females, males expressed a stronger belief in the value of student autonomy and a weaker belief in the need for empathy in teaching. Coeducational teachers believed in the value of emphasizing course content more than did single-sex teachers. Findings are seen as consistent with both the feminized environment conception of schools and the evidence that masculine traits are more highly valued in the wider society than are feminine traits. (French summary) (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measurement of masculine and feminine sex role identities as independent dimensions.

Recent trends in conceptualizing sex role behavior have emphasized the independent development of masculinity and femininity. This has required a logical extension of sex role outcomes from the bipolar alternatives of being masculine or feminine to a quadripolar typology in which sex roles could develop as masculine and feminine, masculine and not feminine, feminine and not masculine, or neither masculine nor feminine. Investigation of this extended typology requires a masculinity-femininity scaling technique that provides independent measures of the 2 dimensions. The present study, employing 1,383 college Ss, presents evidence regarding the psychometric properties of the Masculinity and Femininity scales of the Adjective Check List, developed from the parent Masculinity-Femininity Scale by F. Cosentino and A. B. Heilbrun especially for the purpose of independent measurement. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between sex role attitudes and personality traits and the sex role behavior scale-1: A new measure of masculine and feminine role behaviors and interests.

Describes the construction of a preliminary Sex Role Behavior Scale (SRBS-1), a 160 item self-report inventory comprising male-valued, female-valued, and sex-specific interest/behavior scales. The relationship of the SRBS-1 to measures of sex role attitudes and personality traits is also examined. An initial pool of 239 items describing recreational activities, vocational interests, social and dating behaviors, and marital behaviors thought to be more typical of one sex than the other was administered to 528 college men and women. One-third of the Ss compared the typical young adult man and woman on the items, one-third rated the desirability of the items for men and women, and the remaining third rated themselves. Typical and desirability ratings were used to select items that were male valued (more typical of one sex and desirable only for that sex). The findings suggest that male- and female-valued behaviors form a dualism and are actually positively correlated. Additional analyses showed that individuals with nontraditional sex role attitudes or personality trait organization were somewhat less conventionally sex typed in their behaviors and interests. However, these relationships tended to be small, suggesting a general independence of sex role traits, attitudes, and behaviors. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correlates of preschool girls' feminine and masculine toy preferences.

Observed 47 preschool girls (2.5–4 yrs old) in social interaction with boys and girls. For young Ss, feminine toy preference was positively related to interaction with girls, whereas masculine toy choice was positively associated with interaction with boys. For older girls, feminine toy choice was positively related to interaction with girls. Large, older girls tended to play with masculine toys. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compensatory masculine responding as a function of sex role.

Investigated the compensatory masculinity hypothesis, i.e., that males respond to sex-role threat by exaggerating their masculinity and engaging in greater amounts of antisocial behavior. A total of 72 sex-typed and androgynous (Bem Sex Role Inventory) college males were assigned to either a masculinity threat, masculinity validation, or control treatment group. Dependent measures included an affect rating scale, California Psychological Inventory Femininity scale, and the Behavior Questionnaire. As predicted, sex-typed males responded anxiously to sex-role threat and subsequently reported exaggerated levels of masculinity and antisocial behavior. Unexpectedly, androgynous males also reported anxiety, but they responded by lowering their level of masculine endorsement. Results support the notion of masculine compensation. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Masculine and feminine traits: Their relation to suitedness for and success in training for traditionally masculine and feminine army functions.

Evidence in support of the androgyny, masculinity, and congruence models is compared in a study of 200 men and 299 women training for traditionally masculine and feminine army functions. Ss rated their chances for success in and suitedness for functions for which they were being trained, and responded to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. At the end of training they were rated by peers and training officers. Men rated themselves more likely to succeed than did women and had higher officer and peer ratings. Suitedness self-ratings were higher for sex-typed and androgynous men and cross-sex-typed women. Androgynous men and women, sex-typed men, and cross-sex-typed women saw themselves as most likely to succeed. Officers' ratings favored the sex-typed. Men and women high in masculinity had better self- and peer ratings than did those low in masculinity. These results lend most support to the masculinity model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stereotypic and nonstereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations, gender identity, and psychological adjustment.

This study examines the relations among sex role traits and behavior orientations, gender identity, and psychological adjustment in order to test traditional and contemporary perspectives regarding the adjustment implications of stereotypic and nonstereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations. Measures of sex role personality traits and behaviors and scales assessing depression, anxiety, and social maladjustment were administered to 235 college men and women. In addition, subjects completed measures of gender identity and gender adequacy. Contrary to traditional perspectives, androgynous men and women and cross-sex-typed women were no less well adjusted than sex-typed individuals. However, consistent with traditional perspectives, men who were low in masculine characteristics (and men and women low in both masculine and feminine characteristics) did appear less well adjusted on measures of depression, anxiety, and social maladjustment. Furthermore, low masculinity men had less secure gender identities. No such gender identity disturbances were found in women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A different perspective on androgyny: Evaluations of masculine and feminine personality characteristics.

Hypothesized that androgynous Ss would be liked best and perceived as most adjusted (Exp I) and also be perceived to be as instrumental as masculine Ss and as expressive as feminine Ss (Exp II). 179 undergraduates served as Ss in Exp I and 160 undergraduates served in Exp II. Personal Attributes Questionnaires ostensibly filled out by others were the stimuli evaluated. These stimuli were constructed so that the stimulus persons (SPs) were classified as either androgynous, undifferentiated, masculine, or feminine. Male and female Ss evaluated the SPs on dimensions of likeability, adjustment, expressiveness, instrumentality, masculinity, and femininity. Results demonstrate that androgynous persons, regardless of gender, were liked best and perceived as most adjusted, whereas undifferentiated persons were liked least and perceived as least adjusted. Masculine and feminine persons, regardless of gender, were rated midway between androgynous and undifferentiated persons and generally were not evaluated differently on these dimensions. Evaluations of SPs on stereotypically gender-related dimensions revealed that androgynous persons were seen to be as highly instrumental as masculine persons and as highly expressive as feminine persons, but generally less masculine and feminine than sex-typed persons. Implications for self-fulfilling prophecies in social behavior are discussed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral concordance with sex role ideology related to play areas, creativity, and parental sex typing of children.

72 kindergarten children were individually observed, and their play areas and social interaction with peers and adults were recorded. Teachers rated each child individually, and along with a sample of adults, rated "most kindergarten boys/girls" on the same types of behavior. Parents completed a questionnaire scored for sex typing, and the children were individually tested on a measure of creativity. Girls, as compared to boys, played in more different places, related to adults almost twice as much, and played significantly more often indoors. Of 21 distinguishable play situations, the proportions in which 13 were used by girls and boys did not differ, and significant gender differences in social behavior that were directly observed were fewer in number than those expected by adults. Children whose behavior did not closely approximate sex role expectations by adults differed reliably from more conforming children in being more ideationally fluent. Less conforming boys were more often found in neutral areas and less often in play areas popular with children of their own gender. For girls only, a relationship was found between differences in parents' sex-typing scores and whether the child's behavior matched or did not match expectation. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychology of voice and performance capabilities in masculine and feminine cultures and contexts.

In this article, we examine the hypothesis that in masculine cultures or in other contexts that emphasize competitive achievement, those with higher performance capabilities will feel empowered to have input in decisions and, hence, will desire opportunities to voice their opinions about decisions to be made. In contrast, in more feminine cultures or in other contexts that value the importance of nurturing people with lower capability, those with lower capabilities will feel valued as important group members, will feel worthy of receiving voice and, hence, will appreciate voice opportunities. We provide evidence for these predictions in 2 studies, 1 conducted in the United States (a more masculine culture) and 1 in the Netherlands (a more feminine culture). Evidence also comes from experimental conditions in both studies, in which we made salient to participants countercultural norms and values, that is, nurturing the less capable in the United States and competitive achievement in the Netherlands. Implications for the psychology of voice and cross-cultural research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A cross-national study on the relations among prosocial moral reasoning, gender role orientations, and prosocial behaviors.

This research examined the correlates of prosocial moral reasoning (PMR) in 2 studies. Study 1 investigated age, gender, and culture group differences in PMR in Brazilian children and adolescents (n?=?265) and U.S. adolescents (n?=?67). Relations between PMR and both prosocial behaviors and gender role orientations in Brazilian adolescents (n?=?136) were explored in Study 2. Self-reflective, internalized reasoning was positively related, and hedonistic reasoning was negatively related, to peer ratings of prosocial behaviors. Femininity was associated with more self-reflective, internalized concerns and with less concerns regarding gaining others' approval. In general, age and gender differences in PMR were similar for both Brazilian and U.S. adolescents. However, U.S. adolescents scored higher on internalized moral reasoning than Brazilian adolescents. Discussion focused on the correlates of PMR in Brazilian and U.S. children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stereotypic and nonstereotypic sex role trait and behavior orientations: Implications for personal adjustment.

We tested three competing hypotheses: traditional assumptions that sex-typed traits and behaviors are necessary for optimal adjustment (sex role congruence model); the contemporary androgyny hypothesis, which posits that transcendence of narrow sex typing permits enhanced psychological functioning; and the empirically based masculinity model, which states that psychological health in both men and women is primarily a function of masculine, instrumental traits. Measures of sex role traits, attitudes, and behaviors and scales assessing self-esteem and adjustment were administered to 411 college men and women. Sex role attitudes did not covary with individual differences in adjustment, but sex role traits and behaviors did. Masculine traits and behaviors had broadly positive implications for self-esteem and adjustment for women as well as for men. Feminine qualities did not relate to the adjustment indices as strongly or consistently as masculine ones did, but they did contribute positively to most indices and played a central role in communal self-esteem components. Overall, no support was found for the traditional congruence model, but both the androgyny and masculinity models were supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of dispositional dominance and sex role expectations on leadership behaviors.

In a conceptual replication and extension of E. I. Megargee's (1969) investigation of the influence of sex roles on the expression of trait dominance, 40 same- and 40 mixed-sex dyads of undergraduates were asked to choose a leader and then to interact while performing a gender-neutral task. Ss were selected on the basis of scores on the California Personality Inventory Dominance scale. In each dyad, a high-dominant S was paired with a low-dominant S. Percentages of high-dominant Ss assuming the leadership role were similar to those obtained by Megargee: 73% in same-sex pairs, 90% in mixed-sex dyads in which the male was high dominant, and only 35% in mixed-sex dyads in which the female was high dominant. While performing the task, high-dominant female followers of low-dominant male leaders were generally more dominant in their behaviors than were low-dominant female followers of male leaders. They were also less satisfied than were the latter with their partner and with their position as follower. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived masculine and feminine attributes examined as a function of individuals' sex and level in the organizational power hierarchy: A test of four theoretical perspectives.

Predictions derived from four theoretical formulations, the gender-centered, organization structure, gender-organization, and gender-organization-system perspectives, were tested. Men and women in upper and lower level jobs in a large corporation completed the Masculine and Feminine scales of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire. In support of the organization structure perspective, perceptions of masculine attributes were found to be related to individuals' level in the organizational power hierarchy: upper level men and women reported possessing more masculine characteristics than did individuals at the lower levels. In support of the gender-centered perspective, perceptions of feminine attributes were found to be related to individuals' gender: Women reported being more feminine than men. The gender-organization and gender-organization-system perspectives were not supported. Explanations for these results as well as the implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When sex is more than just sex: Attachment orientations, sexual experience, and relationship quality.

The authors explored the contribution of individual differences in attachment orientations to the experience of sexual intercourse and its association with relationship quality. In Study 1, 500 participants completed self-report scales of attachment orientations and sexual experience. The findings indicated that whereas attachment anxiety was associated with an ambivalent construal of sexual experience, attachment avoidance was associated with more aversive sexual feelings and cognitions. In Study 2, 41 couples reported on their attachment orientations and provided daily diary measures of sexual experiences and relationship interactions for a period of 42 days. Results showed that attachment anxiety amplified the effects of positive and negative sexual experiences on relationship interactions. In contrast, attachment avoidance inhibited the positive relational effect of having sex and the detrimental relational effects of negative sexual interactions. The authors discuss the possibility that attachment orientations are associated with different sex-related strategies and goals within romantic relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)