The effects of contrast upon compliance with socially undesirable requests in the door-in-the-face paradigm.

Tested the adequacy of the perceptual contrast explanation of the door-in-the-face phenomenon when socially undesirable requests were used. 60 undergraduates were first asked a large and unreasonable favor. Immediately following rejection of this initial request, Ss were presented with a less demanding request that involved either a concession on the part of the requester, a gain to the S, or both. 20 control Ss were presented with the 2nd request only. Relative to these controls, Ss in the gaining condition, which involved contrast, showed the greatest increase in the rate of compliance with the 2nd request. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Accentuating the positive: Eliciting generalized compliance from children through activity-oriented requests.

Investigated the effectiveness of activity-oriented requests as a technique for enhancing children's generalized subsequent compliance with other adult requests; 54 nursery school children, 3.7–5.9 yrs old, were studied. In Session 1, experimental Ss were asked to perform a chore and encouraged to make this task more enjoyable by either (a) generating a series of subgoals against which their own performance could be measured or (b) imagining the task to be part of a larger fantasy of inherent interest. Some Ss were offered a choice of particular goal-setting or fantasy-transformation strategies; others were assigned specific strategies. Two weeks later, Ss were asked to perform another task by a 2nd experimenter who was blind to the results of Session 1. Compared to appropriate controls, Ss who had been assigned either a goal-setting or a fantasy-transformation strategy showed increased compliance to the later adult request. Ss who chose their own strategies did not show enhanced compliance. Further analyses suggested that these effects on generalized compliance during Session 2 did not depend on differences in prior behavior during Session 1. Implications for enhancing children's compliance in home and school settings are discussed. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Low-ball procedure for producing compliance: Commitment then cost.

Examined the low-ball technique, a tactic often used by automobile sales dealers to produce compliance from customers, in a set of 3 experiments. In all 3 studies, a requester who induced Ss to make an initial decision to perform a target behavior and who then made performance of the behavior more costly obtained greater final compliance than a requester who informed Ss of the full costs of the target behavior from the outset. The low-ball phenomenon—that an active preliminary decision to take an action tends to persevere even after the costs of performing the action have been increased—was found to be reliable (Exp I), different from the foot-in-the-door effect (Exp II), and effective only when the preliminary decision was made with a high degree of choice (Exp III). In competition with 3 other conceptual explanations, a formulation based on the concept of commitment was seen to best account for the results. An ecologically derived strategy for the identification and investigation of research questions is discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptual contrast versus reciprocal concession as mediators of induced compliance.

Determined whether a reciprocal concessions approach or a perceptual contrast approach better explains the success of a compliance strategy in which a 2nd moderate-sized request is asked immediately after the refusal of a 1st large-sized request. One of 4 Es contacted each undergraduate S by phone and made 2 requests which were varied so that Ss were in 1 of 4 conditions: yielding plus gaining, gaining-only, yielding-only, and control. In the yielding strategy, the sacrifice of the requestor was emphasized while in the gaining strategy, the lessened cost to the S was emphasized. Data from 77 Ss support the view that the critical manipulation in eliciting compliance is the reduction of relative cost to the S, not personal concession shown by the requestor. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The low-ball compliance technique: Task or person commitment?

Three experiments with 195 undergraduates examined the mediating process involved in the low-ball procedure for increasing compliance. In Exp I, Ss who agreed to but were not allowed to perform an initial request complied with a more costly version of the same request to a greater extent than did controls only when the 2nd request came from the same person as did the 1st request and not when it came from a different person. In Exp II, Ss who agreed to but were not allowed to carry out an initial low-cost request complied with a larger request from the same person to the same extent, whether the 1st request was related or unrelated to the 2nd. In Exp III, Ss were allowed or not allowed to perform an initial small request after agreeing to do so. Later, these Ss were approached by either the same or a different person with a larger 2nd request. All groups showed increased compliance over a control cell. However, Ss not allowed to perform the initial request who were approached by the same person for the 2nd request showed a higher rate of compliance than Ss in the other experimental conditions. Results suggest that an unfulfilled obligation to the requester, rather than a commitment to the initial target behavior, is responsible for the effectiveness of the low-ball technique. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mindlessness or mindfulness: A partial replication and extension of Langer, Blank, and Chanowitz.

Four studies examined whether verbal behavior is mindful (cognitive) or mindless (automatic). All studies used the experimental paradigm developed by E. J. Langer et al (see record 1979-23568-001). In Studies 1–3, experimenters approached Ss at copying machines and asked to use it first. Their requests varied in the amount and kind of information given. Study 1 (82 Ss) found less compliance when experimenters gave a controllable reason ("… because I don't want to wait") than an uncontrollable reason ("… because I feel really sick"). In Studies 2 and 3 (42 and 96 Ss, respectively) requests for controllable reasons elicited less compliance than requests used in the Langer et al study. Neither study replicated the results of Langer et al. Furthermore, the controllable condition's lower compliance supports a cognitive approach to social interaction. In Study 4, 69 undergraduates were given instructions intended to increase cognitive processing of the requests, and the pattern of compliance indicated in-depth processing of the request. Results provide evidence for cognitive processing rather than mindlessness in social interaction. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social context and mothers' requesting strategies on Down's syndrome children's social responsiveness.

Social context and maternal style of requesting and responsiveness were examined in teaching and social interactions in relation to 28 Down's syndrome (DS; aged 30–69 mo) and 28 mental-age matched normal children's cooperation and social initiative. Compliance for DS Ss was similar to normal Ss for child-initiated exchanges but decreased during mother-initiated exchanges, particularly in less structured situations. The DS Ss initiated fewer exchanges but were comparable on self-directed behavior. Differences in mothers' requests and children's social competence related to risk, language skills, and social situation. The DS but not normal Ss were more likely to increase compliance with directive vs suggestive requests, but only in the unstructured situation. Mothers' behaviors, social context, and expressive language skills were important in understanding the social competence of DS Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling, direct instruction, and attributions: Effects on altruism.

In a study with 63 male and 63 female 7–10 yr olds, Ss were induced to donate winnings from a game to charity either by having seen a model donate, by being instructed to donate, or by a combination of the 2. They were subsequently either told they had donated because they must enjoy helping others, told they had donated because they thought they were expected to, or not given any reason for their behavior. There was more donation both immediately and 2 wks later in the modeling group given a self-oriented attribution than in the modeling group given an externally oriented attribution. Attributions had no effect in the 2 influence procedures involving direct instruction. On a generalization test, Ss in the self-attribution group shared more pencils with another child than either those in the no-attribution or external-attribution group, regardless of training condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compliance with a leader's suggestions as a function of perceived leader/member competence and potential reciprocity.

Examined with 80 male undergraduates the effects of perceived leader/group member competence and potential reciprocity on group member compliance with a leader's task suggestions. Ss worked in 5-person nominal groups on 2 construction tasks. A confederate was always appointed leader by a bogus random selection procedure. Perceived leader and group member competence were manipulated through bogus performance feedback following the 1st task. Ss received a written suggestion from the leader before the 2nd task that called for an assembly line procedure. Potential reciprocity was manipulated by the leader's request or refusal to see Ss' own suggestions. Compliance was measured through observer coding of Ss' performance on the 2nd task. Ss in the high leader competence/low group member competence condition compiled significantly more than did Ss in all other conditions. Internal analysis revealed that reciprocity was positively related to compliance among Ss with high-quality task suggestions and negatively related to compliance among those with low-quality suggestions. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of attrition on studies of noncompliance.

Describes 2 studies that investigated past compliant behavior of volunteers and nonvolunteers in noncompliance research. In Study 1, past attendance compliance was examined for 87 Ss divided into 5 groups; Ss responded to 2 requests to participate. Participants were found to have been compliant and nonparticipants to have been noncompliant. Study 2, with 67 Ss, extended the research on the participants to determine that early dropouts were more noncompliant than those who remained to the end of the study. Taken together, the findings indicate that sampling bias exists in studies of noncompliance in volunteer samples. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of children's noncompliance strategies from toddlerhood to age 5.

Noncompliance strategies for asserting autonomy were examined. Ss were 51 depressed and well mothers and their children, who were from 1? to 3? years old at Time 1 and 5 years old at Time 2. Data were coded from spontaneous interactions in a naturalistic setting. Compliance to maternal requests did not change from toddlerhood to age 5, and compliance showed stability over time. Age changes in noncompliant responses were interpreted in terms of children's growing autonomy and social skill. Direct defiance and passive noncompliance decreased with age, but simple refusal and negotiation increased with age. 5-year-olds who used skillful forms of resistance were more skillful when directing requests to mothers. Only unskillful compliance predicted later ratings of behavior problems. Sex differences and associations between discipline strategies and children's compliance are reported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental mapping of a megastructure.

Studied the acquisition of spatial information about a large multifunctional complex building by obtaining distance estimations, confidence judgments, and imagery reports. Ss were undergraduates and prospective undergraduates of a university who varied in their experience with the campus. Fourth-year Ss, who had made intensive use of the campus for at least 28 mo, were the most experienced. First-year Ss, who had used the campus for 3–6 mo, had less experience. Other Ss were visiting the campus for the 1st time. At each level of experience, 6 males and 6 females were tested. Magnitude estimation functions for particular sets of distances were computed for each S using iteratively weighted least squares, yielding an exponent and weights for each distance. Improvement in performance on different measures with increasing experience was not uniform: Certain distances were increasingly in error. Data suggest that abstract schemata operate at all levels of exposure but that structural consistency increases. Directional asymmetries in distance judgments that accompanied shifts in imagery are evidence for qualitatively different encodings of the environment: abstract vs scenographic. It is argued that superior performance on the distance estimation task depends on the construction of a dynamic abstract representation or "working map." (French abstract) (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of mental health and reactance-reducing information on offenders' compliance with court-mandated psychiatric evaluations.

Using psychological reactance theory, we examined the effects of 3 educational interventions on the appointment-related behaviors of offenders who were mandated by court to participate in psychiatric evaluations. A posttest-only control group design was used to determine the effects of type of information received on 120 probationers' preappointment requests for additional information, appropriate cancellation of appointments, and compliance with referrals. Ss were provided minimal information, basic mental health information, reactance-reducing information, or a combination of basic mental health and reactance-reducing information. Results indicate that type of information received affected Ss' compliance. The theoretical and practical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Kinematic specification of dynamics as an informational basis for person-and-action perception: Expectation, gender recognition, and deceptive intention.

Presents the principle of kinematic specification of dynamics (KSD), which states that movements specify the causal factors of events, in order to challenge the widespread conviction that perceiving another person must rest on ambiguous and falsifiable information. 89 Ss (aged 19–53 yrs), most of whom were undergraduates, participated in 6 experiments. Ss observed actors in action via G. Johansson's (see record 1974-10267-001) patch-light technique and made judgments about the actors' actions and gender. Results show that (a) the influence of an invisible thrown object on the kinematics of the thrower enabled Ss to perceive the length of the throw; (b) the lead-in movements of lifting allowed perception of the weight lifted; (c) an actor lifting a box could not deceive Ss about the weight, but only convey the deception; and (d) gender was recognizable in about 75% of the presentations, and this percentage rose when the actors were not self-conscious about gender. Results demonstrate the considerable effectiveness of kinematic information in enabling perception of persons and actions. The KSD principle therefore appears an appropriate conceptual guide, and the patch-light technique a useful empirical method, for the study of social knowing. (87 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test of a list procedure for inducing compliance with a request to donate money.

A compliance tactic whereby a target is first shown a list of other compliers and is then asked to comply with a request was examined in 5 field experiments. Exp I with 120 university students showed that this tactic significantly increased the number of donors when they were asked for a money donation. Exps II and III with 60 adults and 60 male students replicated the basic finding for a household population and for a request for a blood donation, respectively. Exp IV with 300 male students varied the number of other donors and the size of their donations and found that Ss' compliance with a request to donate money was affected by these factors. Findings are interpreted as consistent with the expectations derived from the informational social influence hypothesis. Exp V with 90 adults replicated part of Exp IV and suggested that a list effect does not materialize when the norms governing compliance are too strongly violated. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expressed emotion, social skill, and response to negative affect in schizophrenia.

Examined social skills and social perception of 48 schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder patients (aged 18–55 yrs) in response to negative affect as a function of family expressed emotion (EE). Ss participated in a role-play test, a social perception test, and a problem-solving discussion with a family member and were assessed on several measures of symptomatology. EE of family members was evaluated with the Camberwell Family Interview. On the role-play test, Ss with less critical relatives became more assertive in response to increased negative affect from a confederate portraying either a family member or friend, but Ss with highly critical relatives did not. Ss with highly critical relatives were also less assertive when confronted with negative affect from a confederate portraying a family member rather than a friend. The behaviors of both relatives and Ss during a family problem-solving interaction were related to the EE dimensions of criticism, emotional overinvolvement, and warmth. Patient gender was also related to family problem solving but was independent of EE. S's ratings of affect on a videotaped social perception task were not related to family EE, and there were few differences in psychopathology between Ss with high and low EE relatives.… (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social class, moral orientation, and severity of punishment on boys' moral responses to transgression and generosity.

In 2 experiments with a total of 128 2nd- and 3rd-grade boys, the effects of social class, moral orientation, and severity of punishment on moral responses to transgression and generosity were investigated. In Exp I, a modified version of J. Aronfreed's task (see record 1964-02542-001), the response measures were the self-critical and reparative responses on the transgression trial, the self-critical responses prior to this trial, and the number of candies removed by the S during the task. In Exp II, the S was asked if he wished to donate any of his candy from Exp I to a "needy" child. Results indicate a differential effect of punishment treatment on the responses of the various moral orientation Ss. The flexible moral orientation Ss punished themselves less and donated more candy than the rigid Ss across the punishment conditions. The data suggest that the flexible moral orientation Ss may be more "mature" and "internalized" than the rigid orientation Ss. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attribution, reinforcement, and altruism: A developmental analysis.

Conducted 3 experiments with 256 7–10 yr olds in which Ss were induced to donate some of their winnings from a game to poor children. They were then praised for their behavior (reinforcement), told they must have donated because they were helpful people (attribution), or told nothing (control). Subsequent donation, and behavior on a variety of tests of generalized altruism, was assessed. The donation of all Ss was increased both by reinforcement and attributions of prosocial behavior. Neither reinforcement nor attribution affected the generalized altruism of 5-yr-olds, only attribution affected the generalized altruism of 8-yr-olds, and both reinforcement and attribution affected the generalized altruism of 10-yr-olds. Findings are discussed in terms of the effects of reinforcement and attribution on the child's developing self-concept. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How unassertive women perceive emotional expressions.

Examined assertive and unassertive women's perception of others' emotional reactions. 96 undergraduate women completed the College Self-Expression Scale, an assertiveness inventory. Ss were presented with 12 requests which they imagined refusing. Ss were then shown, in sequence, 3 different photographs depicting the other person's response. Ss identified and indicated the intensity of the particular emotion they saw in the photograph. Results indicate that when viewing a smiling expression, low assertive Ss saw significantly more negative emotion and less positive emotion than high assertive Ss. High and low assertive Ss did not differ in the emotion they perceived in the slightly distressed or very distressed expressions. Results suggest an interpersonal focus in understanding unassertive behavior. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The origin, content, and workload of e-mail consultations

CONTEXT: Despite the common use of e-mail, little beyond anecdote or impressions has been published on patient-clinician e-mail consultation. OBJECTIVE: To report our experiences with free-of-charge e-mail consultations. DESIGN: Retrospective review of all e-mail consultation requests received between November 1, 1995, and June 31, 1998. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Consecutive e-mail consultation requests sent to the Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology at the Children's Medical Center of the University of Virginia in Charlottesville. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number of consultation requests per month, time required to respond, who initiated the request and their geographic origin, and the kind of information requested in the consultation. RESULTS: During the 33-month period studied, we received 1239 requests, an average (SD) of 37.6 (15.9) each month. A total of 1001 consultation requests (81%) were initiated by parents, relatives, or guardians, 126 (10%) by physicians, and 112 (9%) by other health care professionals. Consultation requests were received from 39 states and 37 other countries. In 855 requests (69%), there was a specific question about the cause of a particular child's symptoms, diagnostic tests, and/or therapeutic interventions. In 112 (9%), the requester sought a second opinion about diagnosis or treatment for a particular child, and 272 consultations (22%) requested general information concerning a disorder, treatment, or medication without reference to a particular child. A total of 1078 requests (87%) were answered within 48 hours of the initial request. On average, reading and responding to each e-mail took slightly less than 4 minutes. CONCLUSION: E-mail provides a means for parents, guardians, and health care professionals to obtain patient and disease-specific information from selected medical consultants in a timely manner.