Differential roles of frequency and meaningfulness in free recall.

Performed 2 experiments with 91 experimentally naive high school students to study the comparative influence of frequency and meaningfulness (m) on free recall. In Exp. I, the free-recall scores of 3 lists of words matched for m but varying in frequency levels were compared. In Exp. II, free recall of 3 lists of words matched for their frequency but varying in their m values were compared. Findings reveal that it is the frequency and not m of the words that influences free-recall, and that the influence of frequency is noticeable in the early trials of free-recall learning. Findings are discussed in terms of the existing theories of verbal learning. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Serial organization and prior free recall.

Assessed serial recall and organization of a list after different levels of prior free-recall learning with the same list. Performance was expected to be impaired as a direct function of amount of free recall because of inappropriate organizational units formed during free recall. Recall on serial trials following 15 free-recall trials was inferior to 5 or 10 prior free-recall trials. 4 groups of 24 Ss each were tested. Serial organization on the 1st serial trial was inferior if prior free recall occurred, but did not vary with the amount of free recall. These results, and those of part-whole and whole-part free-recall transfer studies, were interpreted by a component analysis of free recall, including response learning/unlearning and organizational learning/unlearning. (16 ref.) (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Associative strength and word frequency as related to stages of paired-associate learning.

Conducted a study with 240 undergraduates to examine the contribution of response-word frequency and associative strength of paired-associates (PA) on the 2 stages of PA learning. 2 levels of word frequency and 2 associative strength levels were used to form 4 PA lists. 4 study-test trials were provided, with separate groups being given matching or free-recall test trials on either the 2nd, 3rd, or 4th trials, and a conventional PA test on all other trials. Overall PA learning revealed the influence of both variables. Associative strength played a significant role on both the matching and free-recall tests; word frequency, however, did not. Matching trials revealed superior learning to that obtained by free-recall. Results suggest the need for some revision of the 2-stage analysis of PA learning. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is retrievability grouping good for recall?

Most theories suppose that during unconstrained retrieval easy-to-retrieve items will be accessed before hard-to-retrieve items. Recent free-recall studies have supported a different access order, the cognitive triage pattern, in which hard-to-retrieve items are accessed first. The present experiments demonstrated that this pattern enhances total recall. In Exps 1–3, clustering type measures of goodness of triage (grouping output according to items' levels of retrievability) predicted total recall in children and adults. In Exps 4 and 5, goodness-of-triage measures predicted total recall when they were derived from on-line information about retrievability (error–success histories), but not when they were derived from normative information about retrievability (frequency and meaningfulness ratings). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal-discrimination learning following a free-recall familiarization training procedure.

Investigated the effects of transfer from a modified free-recall task to verbal-discrimination (VD) learning. The free-recall procedure was designed to impact increments in experimental frequency to specific words that appeared in VD. 4 experimental groups, with 30 undergraduates in each, were given prior free-recall exposure to either all right VD items (A-R), all wrong (A-W), both the right and wrong items from same VD pairs (B-S), or both the right and wrong items from different VD pairs (B-D). A 5th group of 30 Ss served as a control and learned a free-recall list which did not contain any VD items (C). In terms of number of correct responses during VD learning, the groups were ordered as follows: A-R, C, A-W, B-S, and B-D. Results are interpreted as being consistent with derivations from the frequency theory of VD learning. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Encoding context and the generating effect in multitrial free-recall learning.

In a conventional word-list experiment a word is more likely to be recalled if it is generated, rather than merely read, by the S. An experiment with 40 19–40 yr olds is described that extends previous studies by showing that, in free-recall learning, the generation effect was no different when the words were studied in a phonemic or in a semantic encoding context, although the semantic context facilitated learning. (French abstract) (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age differences in free recall and subjective organization.

Previous studies concerned with subjective organization occurring during free-recall learning have not provided consistent evidence for a hypothesis of organizational deficiency in the elderly. To assess the role of recall conditions in this discrepancy, the free-recall learning of younger and older adults was examined under conditions where the recalled words were either visible or not visible. Also, 5 measures of subjective organization, including measures used in earlier studies, were used to assess the role of measurement factors in producing the inconsistent findings. Younger adults, regardless of recall condition, recalled more words and showed more subjective organization than did the older adults with each of the measures. List length, rather than type of recall trial or measure of subjective organization, seems to be responsible for the conflicting findings obtained by other investigators. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of hypnotic time distortion upon free-recall learning.

Attempted, by using hypnosis to modify the perception of the passage of clock time, to alter the amount of effective time available to Ss for free-recall learning. 80 undergraduate and graduate students served as Ss, in 8 experimental groups of 10 each. It was hypothesized that if effective time is manipulated successfully by hypnotic instructions designed to produce time distortion, Ss receiving instructions designed to stretch 3 min into 10 should perform as well in a free-recall learning task as Ss allotted 10 min of nominal time and better than Ss allotted 3 min of nominal time for the task. This was found to be the case. Results are compared to those of previous studies, and limitations of the investigation are mentioned. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

State-dependent learning in older and younger adults.

In this study state-dependent learning in younger and older adults was compared. State was manipulated by having participants rest or exercise for 5 min, followed by exposure to 3 learning trials of a 20-item word list. After a 20-min delay, participants engaged either in the congruent or in the incongruent activity followed by free-recall trial, cued-recall, and recognition tests. Heart rate, blood pressure, and self-report of distress measures verified that the experimental conditions influenced the participants' physiologic state, but the distracter tasks did not. There was no difference in learning that was due to initial exercise condition, but both age groups showed greater recall when state was congruent before learning and delayed recall. This replicates previous research in which consistent state-dependent learning effects in younger adults were found and supports research suggesting that older adults spontaneously use contextual information to facilitate recall. The demonstration of state-dependent learning in older adults is discussed as an example of implicit memory not affected by aging. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Drawing construction as a strategy for learning from text.

Classroom use of student-generated drawings has been encouraged for a number of purposes (e.g., R. Hubbard & K. Ernst, 1996). The present study examined the use of drawing as a learning strategy for 5th- and 6th-grade students reading science text. Three experimental drawing conditions and a reading control tested the hypothesis that drawing is effective only when students are supported during the construction process. Drawing (draw) participants constructed drawings only, whereas illustration comparison participants compared drawings with a provided illustration. Prompted illustration comparison (PIC) participants answered prompting questions to guide this comparison process. Dependent measures included a free-recall and recognition posttest, drawing accuracy, on-line self-monitoring behaviors, and time on task. PIC participants constructed the most accurate drawings and also scored significantly higher on the free-recall posttest. No differences were found on recognition posttest items. Although all drawing conditions spent significantly more time on task, these participants also engaged in significantly more self-monitoring events than did reading control participants. PIC participants also engaged in more events than did draw participants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Identifying the sources of social actions: The role of source cues in person memory.

Memory for social information is typically assessed by means of free-recall procedures that do not require Ss to identify the sources of social actions (i.e., the actor). Two studies are reported that explore people's ability to remember consistent and inconsistent actions when recall is cued with the sources of the social actions (i.e., group affiliation and person cues). Accurate and inaccurate source identification measures were taken. Study 1 explored how familiarity with the names and group affiliations of the target persons affected the pattern of source identifications in group and proper-name cue conditions. Study 2 investigated the role of impression formation and explanatory processing on source identification. The ability to identify the sources of actions varied across cue conditions and across judgmental tasks. The implications these findings have for free- vs. cued-recall mechanisms and for the representation of individuals and groups in memory were discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When dreaming is believing: The (motivated) interpretation of dreams.

This research investigated laypeople's interpretation of their dreams. Participants from both Eastern and Western cultures believed that dreams contain hidden truths (Study 1) and considered dreams to provide more meaningful information about the world than similar waking thoughts (Studies 2 and 3). The meaningfulness attributed to specific dreams, however, was moderated by the extent to which the content of those dreams accorded with participants' preexisting beliefs--from the theories they endorsed to attitudes toward acquaintances, relationships with friends, and faith in God (Studies 3-6). Finally, dream content influenced judgment: Participants reported greater affection for a friend after considering a dream in which a friend protected rather than betrayed them (Study 5) and were equally reluctant to fly after dreaming or learning of a plane crash (Studies 2 and 3). Together, these results suggest that people engage in motivated interpretation of their dreams and that these interpretations impact their everyday lives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An effective method for building meaning vocabulary in primary grades.

Teaching vocabulary to primary grade children is essential. Previous studies of teaching vocabulary (word meanings) using story books in the primary grades reported gains of 20%-25% of word meanings taught. The present studies concern possible influences on word meaning acquisition during instruction (Study 1) and increasing the percentage and number of word meanings acquired (Study 2). Both studies were conducted in a working-class school with approximately 50% English-language learners. The regular classroom teachers worked with their whole classes in these studies. In Study 1, average gains of 12% of word meanings were obtained using repeated reading. Adding word explanations added a 10% gain for a total gain of 22%. Pretesting had no effect on gains. In Study 2, results showed learning of 41% of word meanings taught. At this rate of learning word meanings taught, it would be possible for children to learn 400 word meanings a year if 1,000 word meanings were taught. The feasibility of teaching vocabulary to primary grade children is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The spacing effect, free recall, and two-process theory: A closer look.

Two experiments used procedures similar to those used by R. L. Greene (see record 1989-24870-001) to test the 2-process theory of the spacing effect and, in particular, the contextual-variability subtheory that applies to free-recall performance. Experiment 1 obtained a spacing effect in free recall following intentional learning but not following incidental learning, contrary to a previous result supporting the 2-process theory. Experiment 2 replicated the incidental-learning results when a slow presentation rate was used. However, with a faster presentation rate, a spacing effect was obtained, and performance exceeded that of the slow-presentation-rate condition at the longest tag. Neither the contextual-variability subtheory of 2-process theory nor an alternative deficient-processing hypothesis was able to account for all of the data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Noun imagery and frequency in paired-associate and free-recall learning.

Investigates the effects of rated imagery (I) and Thorndike-Lorge frequency (F) of nouns in paired-associate (PA) and free-recall (FR) learning. In the PA task, I and F were factorially varied on the stimulus and response sides of 16-pair mixed lists. Ss (77 male high school graduates) had 4 PA study and recall trials with each of 2 such lists. In agreement with previous findings, I was strongly related to learning, more so on the stimulus than on the response side of pairs. Weaker effects of F were positive on the response side but negative on the stimulus side under certain combinations of stimulus and response I revealed by interaction effects. The FR task involved factorial variation of I and F in 32-item lists. 52 undergraduates were presented 10 trials with 2 such lists. Recall was consistently better for high-I than for low-I nouns. Frequency had a consistent positive effect when the nouns were high in I, but its effect was negative on early trials when the nouns were abstract. I and F therefore were clearly differentiated empirically in both tasks. Findings are discussed in terms of such factors as stimulus-evoked mediating imagery and response availability. (French summary) (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Imagery versus meaningfulness of nouns in paired-associate learning.

Investigated effects of noun imagery (I) and meaningfulness (m) on paired-associate (PA) learning using 3 PA lists. In 1 list, I was varied on stimulus and response sides in a factorial design while m was held constant; in another, m was similarly varied while I was controlled; in the 3rd, I and m were covaried. 33 undergraduates served as Ss. 4 study-test trials with each list showed that I was alone had strong positive effects, more so on the stimulus than response side of pairs, whereas m alone showed negative effects attributable mainly to superior learning of low m-low m pairs. The covarying attributes had intermediate effects, suggesting again that the contribution of m was negative. Exp. II yielded insignificant effects for m when varied on stimulus and response sides using homogeneous lists. 68 Canadian Forces trainees served as Ss. The patterns of learning data and post learning reports of learning strategies are consistent with an interpretation of the effects of I in terms of mediating imagery. The negative effect of m suggests associative interference. (French summary) (22 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of verbal learning after closed head injury.

Cluster analysis of the learning trials and delayed free-recall trials of 70 patients with closed head injury on the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) revealed 3 distinct patterns of memory performance. The clusters differed in the amount and rate of learning, retroactive interference, and the level of delayed recall. There was a significant positive relationship between performance on the CVLT and performance on concurrent measures of attention, semantic memory, and intellectual ability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cued recall and free recall as a function of the number of items per cue.

Tested the generality of M. Earhard's (see record 1967-13073-001) findings that (a) the number of items/cue determines the rate of cued-recall learning, and (b) free-recall Ss perform as well as cued Ss under the conditions of 6 or 8 items/cue. Categorized materials consisting of English nouns were given to a total of 135 undergraduates in 2 free-recall and 7 cued-recall conditions. Differences were obtained between cued-recall Ss who had 6 or less and 8 or more items/cue. Free-recall Ss performed as well as 6.6 items/cue, which exactly replicates Earhard's result with alphabetized word lists. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memorability as a measure of processing: A unit analysis of prose and list learning.

Presented the same set of unrelated words to 13 different groups of Ss under 13 different conditions to show the effects of another dependent variable in memory studies. Included were intentional free-recall tasks, incidental free recall following lexical decision, and incidental free recall following ratings of orthographic distinctiveness and emotionality. Probability of recall was similar among tasks. Imagery encoding and recognition produced relative probabilities of recall that were different from each other and from free recall. Similar results were then obtained with a prose passage: A story was learned by 13 groups of Ss under 13 conditions. Eight free-recall tasks, which varied with respect to incidental or intentional learning, retention interval, and the age of the Ss, produced similar relative probabilities of recall, whereas recognition and prompted recall produced relative probabilities of recall that were different from each other and from the free-recall tasks. A review of the prose literature was undertaken to test the generality of these results. For the 12 studies that manipulated retention interval, an average of 21% of the variance was accounted for by the main effect of retention interval, 17% by the main effect of units, and only 2% by the retention interval by units interaction. Similarly, for the 12 studies that varied the age of the Ss, 6% of the variance was accounted for by the main effect of age, 32% by the main effect of units, and only 1% by the interaction of age by units. (80 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)